Integrated pest management (IPM) is the dominant pest management paradigm in agriculture, and adoption of IPM is a policy goal at various levels of government. However, with over 67 definitions, what is considered IPM varies, and some implementations of IPM fail to achieve desired results (e.g., reduced pesticide use). The natural complexity of agriculture and pest management leads growers to rely on professionals, usually certified crop advisors (CCAs), to help make management decisions. Though communication with crop advisors is one way to improve IPM, this effort requires an understanding of CCA education, knowledge, and information sources. Previous surveys in North America found most crop advisors were very experienced (>20 years), which may present a concern for the adequate supply of crop advisors in the future, since they will very likely retire in the coming decades. In this survey, nearly 95% of CCAs earned a bachelor’s level degree (or higher). Independent crop advisors reported spending about 43% less time communicating with growers than CCAs employed by consultancies. Most crop advisors gave appropriate, but incomplete, definitions of IPM, and adoption of specific guidelines (i.e., scouting recommendations for red sunflower seed weevil, Smicronyx fulvus) was also low. Some CCAs expressed an opinion that universities (and the federal government) were less valued than other sources of information (e.g., their own CCA network). Collectively, survey responses show room for improvement to IPM through CCA education, but because crop advisors are most likely to be influenced through their network of peers, outreach might be best accomplished through targeting early adopters of IPM practices among the CCA population.

Twelve putative-resistant (R) redroot pigweed populations were collected in sunflower and soybean fields located in northeastern Greece, after repeated exposure to the acetolactate synthase (ALS)–inhibiting herbicides imazamox and tribenuron-methyl. Studies were conducted to determine the resistance status to these two ALS-inhibiting herbicides and evaluate alternative postemergence and preemergence herbicides for effective control. Two susceptible (S) populations were also included for comparison. Among the 12 putative-R populations studied in the whole-plant dose–response pot experiments, 11 were characterized as cross-resistant (R) to the imidazolinone imazamox and the sulfonylurea tribenuron-methyl. In contrast, the putative R5 and the two reference populations (S1, S2) populations were found to be susceptible. Sequencing of the ALS gene revealed that a point mutation (TGG to TTG at position 574) was selected in domain B, where in combination with domain A the majority of point mutations conferring resistance have been detected, resulting in an amino acid substitution from tryptophan (Trp) to leucine (Leu) in the 11 R populations. By contrast, all sequenced plants of the three susceptible populations were found with the wild-type allele encoding Trp574. The labeled rate of the postemergence herbicides tembotrione and dicamba provided fair to excellent control of the populations with ALS cross-resistance. In contrast, at this rate the preemergence herbicides S-metolachlor + terbuthylazine, isoxaflutole, aclonifen, metribuzin, and pendimethalin provided excellent control. These findings strongly suggest that 11 redroot pigweed populations have evolved cross-resistance to ALS-inhibiting herbicides, but viable options for chemical control of this weed still exist.

The impact of climate change on agricultural productivity is difficult to assess. However, determining the possible effects of climate change is an absolute necessity for planning by decision-makers. The aim of the study was the evaluation of the CSM-CROPGRO-Sunflower model of DSSAT4.7 and the assessment of impact of climate change on sunflower yield under future climate projections. For this purpose, a 2-year sunflower field experiment was conducted under semi-arid conditions in the Konya province of Turkey. Rainfed and irrigated treatments were used for model analysis. For the assessment of impact of climate change, three global climate models and two representative concentration pathways, i.e. 4.5 and 8.5 were selected. The evaluation of the model showed that the model was able to simulate yield reasonably well, with normalized root mean square error of 1.3% for the irrigated treatment and 17.7% for the rainfed treatment, a d-index of 0.98 and a modelling efficiency of 0.93 for the overall model performance. For the climate change scenarios, the model predicted that yield will decrease in a range of 2.9–39.6% under rainfed conditions and will increase in a range of 7.4–38.5% under irrigated conditions. Results suggest that temperature increases due to climate change will cause a shortening of plant growth cycles. Projection results also confirmed that increasing temperatures due to climate change will cause an increase in sunflower water requirements in the future. Thus, the results reveal the necessity to apply adequate water management strategies for adaptation to climate change for sunflower production.

The aims of the current study were to investigate the effect of drought stress on phenological and morphological traits of sunflower genotypes and to determine the important traits for identifying drought-tolerant and drought-sensitive cultivars. For this purpose, a lattice square-design experiment was conducted with 64 sunflower genotypes in an 8 × 8 pattern with two replications under non-stress and moisture-stress conditions (irrigation holding at the flowering stage) during 2 years 2016 and 2017. Measured and recorded traits were included the some phenological and morphological traits seeds. Sil-96 genotype showed the highest yield under both non-stress and moisture-stress conditions. Among the morphological traits, the head and stem diameters were highly significant to determine the final yield. In comparing the genotypes, it was concluded that the number of seeds per head was the most influential component affecting the yield. Furthermore, 1000-seed weight was the most important factor affecting grain yield under moisture-stress conditions. The result of association analysis study shows that 45 of inter-simple sequence repeat markers in a general linear model are associated with yield and yield component traits and 23 of them were verified in a mixed linear model (MLM) association approach. Also, 32 markers were informative for morpho-physiological traits and 24 of them verified using the MLM. Finally, 19 informative markers were identified for phenological traits and 10 of them were verified by the MLM.

Increasing crop diversity has been proposed to increase the sustainability of cropping systems. If producers are to adopt these systems, they should also be economically viable. In this study conducted near Mandan, North Dakota, four no-till cropping systems with varying levels of crop diversity were evaluated over a 12-yr period to quantify system effect on crop productivity, input use, production costs, and economic risks and returns. Cropping system treatments included a small grain–fallow rotation (SG–Fallow) and a continuous spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotation (Cont SW) as baseline low-diversity rotations, a small grain–winter wheat (T. aestivum L.)–sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) rotation (SG–WW–Sun), a 5-yr rotation (Five Year) and a dynamic rotation (Dynamic). The SG–Fallow rotation was significantly less productive and less profitable on average than the other rotations, as measured by gross returns and net returns, respectively. However, SG–Fallow also used significantly less inputs than the other rotations. Production costs for the Cont SW and SG–WW–Sun rotations showed a significant increasing trend over time, while production costs for the Five Year rotation showed a significantly lower and slight decreasing trend over the period, with cost trends for the SG–Fallow and Dynamic rotations intermediate to these. Net returns tended to increase and relative economic risk tended to decrease as crop diversity increased from SG–Fallow and Cont SW to SG–WW–Sun, Five Year and the Dynamic system. Results from this study suggest that more diverse rotations can maintain or increase crop productivity and enhance economic viability.

Published information regarding the effect of storage temperature on dormancy alleviation of sunflower achenes is contradictory and ambiguous. In the present study we explored the effect of temperature during dry storage on dormancy release in two sunflower genotypes, including a commercial hybrid and an inbred line. Dry storage at 25°C consistently accelerated dormancy release of achenes compared with 5°C. This response fits the general pattern reported for dry after-ripening in seeds of many other species. Depending on the genotype and the dormancy factor prevailing, higher temperature alleviated embryo dormancy and coat-imposed dormancy. Hormonal pathways involved in these changes were investigated at the physiological level. In both genotypes, sensitivity to abscisic acid (ABA) was reduced by storage at 25°C. Also, but only in one genotype, storage at 25°C reduced ABA levels upon imbibition and increased the response to a gibberellin (GA) synthesis inhibitor and to applied GA3, compared with storage at 5°C; these results support the idea that temperature affects both ABA and GA metabolism and signalling pathways during after-ripening. This information will be useful to define storage conditions for commercial sunflower achenes, and will also help focus future research on the underlying mechanisms of dormancy release during dry after-ripening in sunflower.

Field studies were conducted to determine the effect of crop species, tillage, and rye mulch on sicklepod growth. Competition from soybean and sunflower reduced sicklepod biomass by 19 and 77%, respectively. Sicklepod height was reduced by rye mulch. Rye root residue caused 49% reduction in sicklepod biomass, while whole plant rye mulch reduced weed growth an additional 12%. Crop competition reduced sicklepod shoot biomass to a greater extent when rye residue was present. Crop seed yield was 32% lower in tilled plots compared with no-tillage due to more weed competition in the tilled plots. In the presence of rye root residue, soybean yield showed a two-fold increase over no mulch or whole plant rye mulch. Sunflower yield increased by 30% in the presence of rye residue compared with no mulch.

Pendimethalin and sulfentrazone are applied PRE in sunflower to control many grasses and broadleaf weeds. These herbicides have quite different physicochemical properties. Pendimethalin has a high carbon-referenced sediment partition coefficient (Koc)(17,200 L kg−1), with a low leaching potential, whereas sulfentrazone has a low Koc (43 L kg−1), with a high leaching potential. A 2-yr study was conducted to determine the dissipation of these two herbicides applied to a loamy sand soil. Pendimethalin dissipated in two phases, an initial rapid loss between application and 3 to 5 d after application (DAT) and then a slower rate of dissipation. The first, rapid phase was likely due to volatilization of the herbicide from the soil surface. Pendimethalin dissipated at a similar rate for the slower phase in 2008 and 2010 (time to 50% dissipation [DT50] was 43 d and 39 d, respectively). The dissipation of sulfentrazone, unlike pendimethalin, was not biphasic. The DT50 for sulfentrazone was different between the 2 yr (30 d and 14 d in 2008 and 2010, respectively). Pendimethalin remained primarily in the top 7.5 cm of the soil column, whereas sulfentrazone leached to at least 30 cm. The leaching of sulfentrazone depended on the timing of irrigation or precipitation after application. The more rapid loss of sulfentrazone in the top 30 cm of the soil column in 2010 could have been partially due to the herbicide leaching below the 30 cm depth that was sampled.

Growth habit is an important determinant of competitive ability in legume crops. Erect ‘Iron-Clay’ (IC), semi-erect ‘IT89KD-288’ (288), and prostrate ‘UCR 779’ (779) cowpea genotypes were planted with four densities of common sunflower or common purslane to determine which cowpea growth habit is more competitive to these weeds having markedly different statures. Both sunflower and purslane reduced cowpea relative growth rate (RGR) but at different phases of the growing season. Low-growing purslane had an effect in the earlier part of the season, and sunflower decreased cowpea RGR in the middle of growing season. RGR of genotype IC was the least affected and genotype 779 the most reduced by sunflower. Cowpea apparently compensated for early season purslane competition by increasing RGR after purslane flowering, with RGR for the IC genotype increasing the most and 779 increasing the least. All cowpea genotypes caused a similar reduction in sunflower biomass accumulation; but purslane biomass was most reduced by genotype IC and least affected by genotype 288. Erect genotype IC is more competitive due to its taller stature, greater height growth rate, and higher position of maximal leaf area density, despite a lower photosynthetic rate and light use efficiency than the other cowpea genotypes. Our results suggest that erect cowpea growth habit may be generally more competitive with weeds compared to semi-erect or prostrate growth habit.

Ninety-seven inbred lines of sunflower were screened in the field by treatment with a combination of imazamox and malathion, an inhibitor of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s), to identify sunflower lines with natural tolerance to the herbicide reversed by malathion. One tolerant line, named TolP450-1, was selected and characterized in the field and in the greenhouse to evaluate its response to the herbicides imazamox, prosulfuron, and atrazine at different plant development stages (germination, emergence, and third difoliate) with and without malathion. For all herbicides and all development stages analyzed, TolP450-1 showed significantly higher tolerance compared with the susceptible line RHA266. In all cases, the tolerance was reversed by malathion. This sunflower line, tolerant to multiple herbicides, may be useful in helping to manage herbicide-resistant weeds by allowing additional herbicides to be used in this oilseed crop.

Acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS) inhibiting herbicides have played a significant role in effective weed control in the cultivation of sunflower since their discovery. The development of sunflower lines and hybrids resistant to these herbicides made their post-emergence application possible. In this study, wild Helianthus species were screened phenotypically for imidazolinone (IMI) and sulfonylurea (SU) resistance by herbicide spray and for allelic variations at Ahasl1 (Ahas1 large subunit) locus using simple sequence repeat and single nucleotide polymorphism markers. Helianthus praecox accession 1823 plants showed promising resistance to three classes of SU-based herbicides and Helianthus nuttallii accession NUT05 plants remained green for a longer time after imazethapyr spray. A total of 50 accessions belonging to 21 wild Helianthus species of different ploidy levels were analysed for allelic variation along with some parents of commercial sunflower hybrids. None of the wild species showed the resistant allele (Ahasl1-1) similar to SCG101 (IMI-resistant line), although it is present in some of the parental lines of hybrids. However, the parental lines having Ahasl1-1-type allele failed to survive the field dose of imazethapyr spray. Inter-species and inter-accessional allelic variation could be observed among the species. PRA1823 and NUT05 showed repeat length variations at Ahasl1 locus. Sequencing of full length Ahasl1 gene from both these accessions did not reveal any resistance mutations in the protein sequences. The molecular basis of the phenotypes identified in this study could be explored further and utilized in breeding programmes for imparting herbicide resistance in cultivated hybrids across sunflower growing regions of the world.

Gene flow between agricultural crops and related wild plant populations can produce hybrids which differ significantly from their wild counterparts in many life history traits, including seed traits. Seeds from wild annuals often possess significant dormancy, while cultivated varieties have been selected to germinate immediately under favourable conditions. Consequently, the dormancy characteristics of crop–wild hybrids could influence their survival, seed-bank dynamics and, ultimately, the extent to which crop genes persist in wild populations. Dormancy characteristics can be influenced by both maternal effects, as well as the genetics of a seed's embryo, which are the result of contributions from both parents. Here we focus on how maternal effects and embryo genetics affect seed dormancy in crop–wild hybrid sunflowers (Helianthus annuus). Using three laboratory experiments, we quantified the germination and dormancy of 15 crop–wild hybrid sunflower cross types, while also identifying achene characteristics that may influence the differential germination observed. We found that increased frequencies of crop alleles and the maternal effects imparted by hybridization can reduce dormancy, though the effect of increased frequencies of crop alleles was more pronounced in wild- and F1-produced than in the crop-produced achenes. The more open pericarp of the crop-produced achenes and the shorter relative distance that their radicles had to travel to germinate may explain some of the observed maternal effects. Finally, we generated hypotheses about how these results could affect survival and crop gene introgression in the field.

Helianthus annuus and H. petiolaris (Asteraceae) are wild sunflowers native to North America but have become naturalized in central Argentina covering an area of about 5 million hectares. Wild H. annuus has been recognized as invader species in several countries, but no research has been done to study the ecological determinants of their distribution. In a survey covering seven provinces between 31°58′–38°S and 60°33′–69°W, we described the ecology of the main wild populations. Wild Helianthus populations were located in three of the 18 ecological regions of Argentina, on five Mollisol and seven Entisol soil groups. The associated plant communities were comprised 60 species belonging to 16 families, all being frequent components of the native flora. Disease symptoms were seldom observed in wild populations, with Alternariahelianthi being the most commonly observed pathogen. Population size varied from less than 100 to more than 100,000 plants, covering from 100 to more than 60,000 m2 with densities most frequently up to 3 plants/m2, but reaching 80 plants/m2 at certain sites. Intermediate plant phenotypes between wild species and cultivated sunflower were found in one-third of the populations providing evidence of intense gene flow. Hybrid swarms were found at three localities with population sizes between 100 and 10,000 individuals.

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) seeds show more germination at high temperatures (25–30°C) than at temperatures below 20°C. Osmopriming with polyethylene glycol-6000 for 3–5 days at 15°C strongly increases germination at suboptimal temperatures. This stimulatory effect of priming persists after seed redrying and during subsequent storage at 20°C (55% RH) for at least 14 weeks. However, primed seeds deteriorate faster than untreated seeds during accelerated aging (45°C, 100% RH). The longer the priming treatment, the higher is the amount of germination but at the same time the higher is the sensitivity of seeds to accelerated aging. Priming enhances the respiratory activity of seeds transferred onto water and their ability to convert 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) to ethylene. These effects remain after drying the seeds and are maintained in part during dry storage, whereas they disappear during accelerated aging. These results suggest that ACC-dependent ethylene production might be a good indicator of seed vigour; it increases with duration of priming and decreases very early during aging, well before significant loss of seed viability. Decrease in ACC conversion to ethylene indicates that aging is probably associated with membrane deterioration since in vivo ACC oxidase activity depends on membrane properties. However, no increase in electrolyte leakage is observed during aging.

Excised Helianthus annuus L. embryos became dormant during the third week after anthesis. At this stage a short drying treatment (3 d) led to a slight improvement in germination but a 6-week dry storage caused a complete release from dormancy. The short drying treatment, however, elicited the embryos' response to an exogenous concentration of GAs which was unable to promote germination of fresh embryos. It therefore appeared that a short drying treatment changed the sensitivity to GAs but was not capable of directing embryo metabolism completely towards a germinative mode. Moreover, this drying treatment reduced considerably the ABA content in both the axis and the embryo. Nevertheless, no correlation could be established between germinability and the ABA content since the amount of ABA was not modified by the 6-week dry storage. The key step for predisposing the seeds to germinate is the suppression of the capacity for ABA synthesis in the axis, a suppression which takes place during 6-week dry storage.

Excised Helianthus annuus embryos were capable of precocious germination as early as 7 d after pollination. At this stage they were not capable of withstanding desiccation treatment. The desiccation tolerance was acquired at a stage of development which depended on the rate of water loss to which embryos were subjected. Coincident with the acquisition of tolerance to a rapid desiccation, they gained the capacity to withstand 24 h preincubation in agitated water; this acquisition could be correlated to a sharp decrease of the leaching of electrolytes, amino acids and proteins in the incubation water, suggesting that a change in membrane properties played a key role in this transition. Moreover, the acquisition of tolerance to these stresses was coincident with the increase of endogenous abscisic acid (ABA). ABA applied in vitro to young embryos induced tolerance both to desiccation and to preincubation in water: this in vitro acquisition of tolerance was again correlated with a decrease in the leakage.

Protein composition of sunflower seeds (Helianthus annuus L.) was analysed to identify a possible marker for germination capacity and to evaluate seed viability precociously after harvest and after natural ageing during storage. Electrophoresis on 2-D gels was used to compare total soluble and in vivo synthesized proteins in two seed lots showing different germination capacities. Differences were observed to a greater extent in in vivo protein synthesis profiles than in total soluble proteins. Inhibition of [35S]methionine uptake and incorporation in seeds with low germinability was also observed. The precise relationship between protein composition and prediction of germinability could not be determined. Other aspects such as membrane damage, capacity for protein synthesis and seed lot homogeneity in relation to germination are discussed.

In this study, we characterized two sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) lines with differential sensitivity to drought, the sensitive line B59 and the tolerant line B71. Using both lines, we compared the content of endogenous jasmonates (JAs) in dry and imbibed seeds from plants grown under irrigation and drought. Jasmonic acid (JA), 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (OPDA), 11-hydroxyjasmonate (11-OH-JA) and 12-hydroxyjasmonate (12-OH-JA) were detected in dry and imbibed sunflower seeds. Seeds from plants grown under drought had a lower content of total JAs and exhibited higher germination percentages than seeds from irrigated plants, demonstrating that environmental conditions have a strong influence on the progeny. OPDA and 12-OH-JA were the main compounds found in dry seeds of both lines. Imbibed seeds showed an enhanced amount of total JAs with respect to dry seeds produced by plants grown in both soil moisture conditions. Imbibition triggered a dramatic OPDA increase in the embryo, suggesting a role of this compound in germination. We conclude that JAs patterns vary during sunflower germination and that the environmental conditions experienced by the mother plant modify the hormonal content of the seed progeny.

Sunflower seedlings (Helianthus annuus hybrid Select) were grown in a complete nutrient solution in the absence or presence of Cd2+ (10 and 20 μM). Analyses were performed to establish whether there was a differential effect of Cd2+ on mature and young leaves. After 7 d the growth parameters as well as the leaf area had decreased in both mature and young leaves. Accumulation of Cd2+ in the roots exceeded that in the shoots. Seedlings treated with Cd2+ exhibited reduced contents of chlorophyll and CO2 assimilation rate, with a greater decrease in young leaves. The photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (PSII) was not altered by Cd2+ treatment in either mature or young leaves, although during steady-state photosynthesis in young leaves there was a significant alteration in the following parameters: quantum yield of electron transport by PSII (ΦPSII), photochemical quenching (qP), non-photochemical quenching (qNP), and excitation capture efficiency of PSII (Φexc).

Leaf expansion rate varies with leaf temperature, photon flux density (PPFD), evaporative demand and soil water status. In most simulation models, it is calculated every day by multiplying the amount of carbohydrate available to leaves by specific leaf area (SLA). However, leaf expansion rate is considerably reduced by mild water deficits which do not affect photosynthesis, and is not affected by a reduction in the PPFD intercepted during rapid leaf expansion. Specific leaf area undergoes a several-fold variability depending on PPFD, soil water status and time of day. It is increased when environmental conditions have a greater depressive effect on expansion rate than on photosynthesis, and is decreased in the opposite case. It is therefore appropriate to model leaf expansion independently of the plant carbon budget. Consistent characteristics can be deduced from a series of experiments, allowing a model of leaf expansion to be proposed. (i) Time courses of relative leaf expansion rate and of epidermal cell division rate are well conserved within a plant and across a large range of environmental conditions, provided that durations and rates are expressed in thermal time. Maximum relative rates are common to all zones of a leaf and to all leaves of a plant, in maize and sunflower. (ii) A water deficit, or a reduction in intercepted PPFD, imposed in the first half of the period of leaf development affects the relative expansion rate in the deficit only, but permanently affects the absolute expansion rate. In contrast, a reduction in PPFD causes no effect on leaf expansion if imposed in the rapid expansion period when the leaf is autotrophic. (iii) Expansion rate is related to evaporative demand and to the concentration of ABA in the xylem sap with relationships that apply under both field and laboratory conditions. (iv) Tissue expansion and epidermal cell division behave as independent processes which determine epidermal cell area at each time.