Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-j7khd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-31T20:40:20.014Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

How can the study of physiological reactivity contribute to our understanding of adversity and resilience processes in development?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 April 2012

Jelena Obradović
Jelena Obradović*
Affiliation:
Stanford University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Jelena Obradović, Stanford University, School of Education, 485 Lasuen Mall, Stanford, CA 94305-3096; E-mail: jelena.obradovic@stanford.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The focus of this article is to present current progress in understanding the interplay among adversity, physiological sensitivity to context, and adaptive functioning, with an emphasis on implications and future directions for resilience researchers. It includes a review of current literature that demonstrates (a) links between various levels of adversity exposure and variability in physiological reactivity, (b) how the interplay between children's physiological reactivity and different sources of risk and adversity relates to variability in adaptive functioning, and (c) various approaches for capturing a more dynamic nature of physiological reactivity and related processes. Throughout, important conceptual and empirical issues are highlighted.

Information

Type
Special Section Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 24 , Issue 2 , May 2012 , pp. 371 - 387
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Adam, E. K., Doane, L. D., Zinbarg, R. E., Mineka, S., Craske, M. G., & Griffith, J. W. (2010). Prospective prediction of major depressive disorder from cortisol awakening responses in adolescence. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 921–931.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alink, L. R. A., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans Kranenburg, M. J., Mesman, J., Juffer, F., & Koot, H. M. (2008). Cortisol and externalizing behavior in children and adolescents: Mixed meta analytic evidence for the inverse relation of basal cortisol and cortisol reactivity with externalizing behavior. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 427–450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alkon, A., Goldstein, L. H., Smider, N., Essex, M. J., Kupfer, D. J., & Boyce, W. T. (2003). Developmental and contextual influences on autonomic reactivity in young children. Developmental Psychobiology, 42, 64–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnsten, A. F. T. (2009). Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 410–422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnsten, A. F. T., & Li, B. M. (2005). Neurobiology of executive functions: Catecholamine influences on prefrontal cortical functions. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1377–1384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bagot, R. C., Tse, C. Y., Nguyen, H.-B., Wong, T. P., & Meaney, M. J. (2011). Maternal care differentially regulates hippocampal development in the dorsal and ventral hippocampus. Paper presented at the Arthur M. Sacklet Colloquia of the National Academy of Sciences, Irvine, CA.Google Scholar
Bauer, A., Quas, J. A., & Boyce, W. T. (2002). Associations between physiological reactivity and children's behavior: Advantages of a multisystem approach. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23, 102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beauchaine, T. (2001). Vagal tone, development, and Gray's motivational theory: Toward an integrated model of autonomic nervous system functioning in psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 183–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beauchaine, T. P., Gatzke-Kopp, L., & Mead, H. K. (2007). Polyvagal theory and developmental psychopathology: Emotion dysregulation and conduct problems from preschool to adolescence. Biological Psychology, 74, 174–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J. (2005). Differential susceptibility to rearing influence: An evolutionary hypothesis and some evidence. In Ellis, B. J. & Bjorklund, D. (Eds.), Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development (pp. 139–163). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). For better and for worse: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 300–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berntson, G. G., Cacioppo, J. T., Quigley, K. S., & Fabro, V. T. (1994). Autonomic space and psychophysiological response. Psychophysiology, 31, 44–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berntson, G. G., Quigley, K. S., & Lozano, D. (2007). Cardiovascular psychophysiology. Handbook of psychophysiology (3rd ed., pp. 182–210). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, C. (2003). Behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation in young children: Relations with self-regulation and adaptation to preschool in children. Developmental Psychobiology, 42, 301–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C. (2010). Stress and the development of self regulation in context. Child Development Perspectives, 4, 181–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C., Granger, D., & Razza, R. P. (2005). Cortisol reactivity is positively related to executive function in preschool children attending head start. Child Development, 76, 554–567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C., Granger, D. A., Willoughby, M., Mills-Koonce, R., Cox, M., Greenberg, M. T., et al. (2011). Salivary cortisol mediates effects of poverty and parenting on executive functions in early childhood. Child Development, 82, 1970–1984.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C., & Peters, R. (2003). Physiological and neurocognitive correlates of adaptive behavior in preschool among children in head start. Developmental Neuropsychology, 24, 479–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C., Raver, C. C., Granger, D., Mills-Koonce, R., & Hibel, L. (2011). Allostasis and allostatic load in the context of poverty in early childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 845–857.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonanno, G. A., Brewin, C. R., Kaniasty, K., & Greca, A. M. L. (2010). Weighing the costs of disaster: Consequences, risks, and resilience in individuals, families and communities. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 11, 1–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyce, W. T., & Ellis, B. J. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary–developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 271–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyce, W. T., Essex, M. J., Alkon, A., Goldsmith, H. H., Kraemer, H. C., & Kupfer, D. J. (2006). Early father involvement moderates biobehavioral susceptibility to mental health problems in middle childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 1510–1520.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyce, W. T., Quas, J., Alkon, A., Smider, N., Essex, M., & Kupfer, D. J. (2001). Autonomic reactivity and psychopathology in middle childhood. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 144–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brady, S. S., & Matthews, K. A. (2006). Chronic stress influences ambulatory blood pressure in adolescents. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 31, 80–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brenner, S. L., Beauchaine, T. P., & Sylvers, P. D. (2005). A comparison of psychophysiological and self-report measures of BAS and BIS activation. Psychophysiology, 42, 108–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooker, R. J., & Buss, K. A. (2010). Dynamic measures of RSA predict distress and regulation in toddlers. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 372–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruce, J., Fisher, P., Pears, K., & Levine, S. (2009). Morning cortisol levels in preschool aged foster children: Differential effects of maltreatment type. Developmental Psychobiology, 51, 14–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buckner, J. C., Mezzacappa, E., & Beardslee, W. R. (2003). Characteristics of resilient youths living in poverty: The role of self-regulatory processes. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 139–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burgess, K. B., Marshall, P. J., Rubin, K. H., & Fox, N. A. (2003). Infant attachment and temperament as predictors of subsequent externalizing problems and cardiac physiology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 819–831.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bush, N. R., Obradović, J., Adler, N. A., & Boyce, W. T. (2011). Developmental markers of allostatic load: Examining the evidence in a longitudinal sample of kindergarten children. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 1089–1106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buss, K. A., Davidson, R. J., Kalin, N. H., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2004). Context-specific freezing and associated physiological reactivity as a dysregulated fear response. Developmental Psychology, 40, 583–594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., Malarkey, W. B., Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Sheridan, J. F., Poehlmann, K. M., et al. (1998). Autonomic, neuroendocrine, and immune responses to psychological stress: The reactivity hypothesis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 840, 664–673.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calkins, S. D. (1997). Cardiac vagal tone indices of temperamental reactivity and behavioral regulation in young children. Developmental Psychobiology, 31, 125–135.3.0.CO;2-M>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calkins, S. D., Graziano, P. A., & Keane, S. P. (2007). Cardiac vagal regulation differentiates among children at risk for behavior problems. Biological Psychology, 74, 144–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2004). Cardiac vagal regulation across the preschool period: Stability, continuity, and implications for childhood adjustment. Developmental Psychobiology, 45, 101–112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, M., & Earls, F. (1997). Psychological and neuroendocrinological sequelae of early social deprivation in institutionalized children in Romania. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 807, 419–428.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851–854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., et al. (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301, 386–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, E., Langer, D. A., Raphaelson, Y. E., & Matthews, K. A. (2004). Socioeconomic status and health in adolescents: The role of stress interpretations. Child Development, 75, 1039–1052.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, E., Matthews, K. A., Salomon, K., & Ewart, C. K. (2002). Cardiovascular reactivity during social and nonsocial stressors: Do children's personal goals and expressive skills matter? Health Psychology, 2002, 16–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, E., Miller, G. E., Kobor, M. S., & Cole, S. W. (2011). Maternal warmth buffers the effects of low early-life socioeconomic status on pro-inflammatory signaling in adulthood. Molecular Psychiatry, 16, 729–737.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Blender, J. A. (2006). A multiple levels-of-analysis perspective on resilience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 248–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Curtis, W. J. (2006). The developing brain and neural plasticity: Implications for normality, psychopathology, and resilience. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Developmental neuroscience (Vol. 2, 2nd ed., pp. 1–64). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001a). Diverse patterns of neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 677–693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001b). The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology on neuroendocrine functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 783–804.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Gunnar, M. R., & Toth, S. L. (2010). The differential impacts of early physical and sexual abuse and internalizing problems on daytime cortisol rhythm in school-aged children. Child Development, 81, 252–269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Toth, S. L., & Sturge-Apple, M. L. (2011). Normalizing the development of cortisol regulation in maltreated infants through preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 789–800.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corbett, B. A., Schupp, C. W., Levine, S., & Mendoza, S. (2009). Comparing cortisol, stress, and sensory sensitivity in children with autism. Autism Research, 2, 39–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowell, S. E., Beauchaine, T. P., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Sylvers, P., Mead, H., & Chipman-Chacon, J. (2006). Autonomic correlates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder in preschool children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 174–178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowell, S. E., Beauchaine, T. P., McCauley, E., Smith, C. J., Stevens, A. L., & Sylvers, P. (2005). Psychological, autonomic, and serotonergic correlates of parasuicide among adolescent girls. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1105–1127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, E. M., El-Sheikh, M., Kouros, C. D., & Keller, P. S. (2007). Children's skin conductance reactivity as a mechanism of risk in the context of parental depressive symptoms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 48, 436–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curtis, W. J., & Cicchetti, D. (2003). Moving research on resilience into the 21st century: Theoretical and methodological considerations in examining the biological contributors to resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 773–810.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., Sturge-Apple, M. L., & Cicchetti, D. (2011). Interparental aggression and children's adrenocortical reactivity: Testing an evolutionary model of allostatic load. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 801–814.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, E. P., Glynn, L. M., Waffarn, F., & Sandman, C. A. (2011). Prenatal maternal stress programs infant stress regulation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 119–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Del Giudice, M., Ellis, B. J., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2011). The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1562–1592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Del Giudice, M., Hinnant, J. B., Ellis, B. J., & El-Sheikh, M. (in press). Adaptive patterns of stress responsivity: A preliminary investigation. Developmental Psychology.Google Scholar
Dettling, A. C., Parker, S. W., Lane, S., Sebanc, A., & Gunnar, M. R. (2000). Quality of care and temperament determine changes in cortisol concentrations over the day for young children in childcare. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 819–836.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dettmer, A. M., Novak, M. A., Suomi, S. J., & Meyer, J. S. (2012). Physiological and behavioral adaptation to relocation stress in differentially reared rhesus monkeys: Hair cortisol as a biomarker for anxiety-related responses. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37, 191–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 355–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DiCorcia, J. A., & Tronick, E. (2011). Quotidian resilience: Exploring mechanisms that drive resilience from a perspective of everyday stress and coping. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1593–1602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dienstbier, R. A. (1989). Arousal and physiological toughness: Implications for mental and physical health. Psychological Review, 96, 84–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doane, L. D., & Adam, E. K. (2010). Loneliness and cortisol: Momentary, day-to-day, and trait associations. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 430–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dozier, M., Manni, M., Gordon, M. K., Peloso, E., Gunnar, M. R., Stovall-McClough, K. C., et al. (2006). Foster children's diurnal production of cortisol: An exploratory study. Child Maltreatment, 11, 189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dozier, M., Peloso, E., Lewis, E., Laurenceau, J.-P., & Levine, S. (2008). Effects of an attachment-based intervention on the cortisol production of infants and toddlers in foster care. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 845–859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., Erath, S. A., Buckhalt, J. A., Granger, D. A., & Mize, J. (2008). Cortisol and children's adjustment: The moderating role of sympathetic nervous system activity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 601–611.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., Harger, J., & Whitson, S. M. (2001). Exposure to interparental conflict and children's adjustment and physical health: The moderating role of vagal tone. Child Development, 72, 1617–1636.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., Keller, P. S., & Erath, S. A. (2007). Marital conflict and risk for child maladjustment over time: Skin conductance level reactivity as a vulnerability factor. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 715–727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., Kouros, C. D., Erath, S., Cummings, E. M., Keller, P., & Staton, L. (2009). Marital conflict and children's externalizing behavior: Interactions between parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system activity. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 74(Serial No. 292).Google ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., & Whitson, S. A. (2006). Longitudinal relations between marital conflict and child adjustment: Vagal regulation as a protective factor. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 30–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, B. J., Boyce, W. T., Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2011). Differential susceptibility to the environment: An evolutionary–neurodevelopmental theory. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 7–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, B. J., Essex, M. J., & Boyce, W. T. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context: II. Empirical explorations of an evolutionary–developmental theory. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 303–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Engert, V., Efanov, S. I., Dedovic, K., Duchesne, A., Dagher, A., & Pruessner, J. C. (2010). Perceived early-life maternal care and the cortisol response to repeated psychosocial stress. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 35, 370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Essex, M. J., Armstrong, J. M., Burk, L. R., Goldsmith, H. H., & Boyce, W. T. (2011). Biological sensitivity to context moderates the effects of the early teacher–child relationship on the development of mental health by adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 149–161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Essex, M. J., Klein, M. H., Cho, E., & Kalin, N. H. (2002). Maternal stress beginning in infancy may sensitize children to later stress exposure: Effects on cortisol and behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 776–784.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Essex, M. J., Thomas Boyce, W., Hertzman, C., Lam, L. L., Armstrong, J. M., Neumann, S., et al. (in press). Epigenetic vestiges of early developmental adversity: Childhood stress exposure and DNA methylation in adolescence. Child Development.Google Scholar
Evans, G. W., & English, K. (2002). The environment of poverty: Multiple stressor exposure, psychophysiological stress, and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73, 1238–1248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, G. W., & Kim, P. (2007). Childhood poverty and health: Cumulative risk exposure and stress dysregulation. Psychological Science, 18, 953–956.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eysenck, H. J. (1983). Stress, disease, and personality: The inoculation effect. In Cooper, C. L. (Ed.), Stress research (pp. 121–146). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Fabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., & Eisenbud, L. (1993). Behavioral and physiological correlates of children's reactions to others in distress. Developmental Psychology, 29, 655–663.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, R., & Eidelman, A. I. (2009). Biological and environmental initial conditions shape the trajectories of cognitive and social–emotional development across the first years of life. Developmental Science, 12, 194–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feldman, R., Singer, M., & Zagoory, O. (2010). Touch attenuates infants' physiological reactivity to stress. Developmental Science, 13, 271–278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fernald, L. C. H., Burke, H. M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2008). Salivary cortisol levels in children of low-income women with high depressive symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 423–436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, P. A., & Stoolmiller, M. (2008). Intervention effects on foster parent stress: Associations with child cortisol levels. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 1003–1021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, P. A., Van Ryzin, M. J., & Gunnar, M. R. (2011). Mitigating HPA axis dysregulation associated with placement changes in foster care. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36, 531–539.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fowles, D., Kochanska, G., & Murray, K. (2000). Electrodermal activity and temperament in preschool children. Psychophysiology, 37, 777–787.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, N. A., & Field, T. M. (1989). Individual differences in preschool entry behavior. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 10, 527–540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, N. A., Henderson, H. A., Rubin, K. H., Calkins, S. D., & Schmidt, L. A. (2001). Continuity and discontinuity of behavioral inhibition and exuberance: Psychophysiological and behavioral influences across the first four years of life. Child Development, 72, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Francis, D. D., & Meaney, M. J. (1999). Maternal care and the development of stress responses. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 9, 128–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garmezy, N. (1990). A closing note: Reflections on the future. In Rolf, J., Masten, A., Cicchetti, D., Nuechterlein, K., & Weintraub, S. (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 527–534). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garmezy, N., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (1984). The study of stress and competence in children: A building block for developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 97–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gatzke-Kopp, L., Raine, A., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Steinhauer, S. R. (2002). Serious delinquent behavior, sensation seeking, and electrodermal arousal. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 477–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilissen, R., Koolstra, C., M., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Van der Veer, R. (2007). Physiological reactions of preschoolers to fear-inducing film clips: Effects of temperamental fearfulness and quality of the parent–child relationship. Developmental Psychobiology, 49, 187–195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordis, E. B., Granger, D. A., Susman, E. J., & Trickett, P. K. (2006). Asymmetry between salivary cortisol and α-amylase reactivity to stress: Relation to aggressive behavior in adolescents. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 976–987.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottesman, I. I., & Shields, J. (1967). A polygenic theory of schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 58, 199–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grunau, R. E., Holsti, L., Haley, D. W., Oberlander, T., Weinberg, J., Solimano, A., et al. (2005). Neonatal procedural pain exposure predicts lower cortisol and behavioral reactivity in preterm infants in the NICU. Pain, 113, 293–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (2002). Social regulation of the cortisol levels in early human development. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27, 199–220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Frenn, K., Wewerka, S. S., & Van Ryzin, M. J. (2009). Moderate versus severe early life stress: Associations with stress reactivity and regulation in 10- to 12-year-old children. Development and Psychopathology, 34, 62–75.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Kryzer, E., Van Ryzin, M. J., & Phillips, D. A. (2010). The rise in cortisol in family day care: Associations with aspects of care quality, child behavior, and child sex. Child Development, 81, 851–869.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Morison, S. J., Chisholm, K. I. M., & Schuder, M. (2001). Salivary cortisol levels in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 611–628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Tout, K., de Haan, M., Pierce, S., & Stansbury, K. (1997). Temperament, social competence, and adrenocortical activity in preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 32, 65–85.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., & Vazquez, D. M. (2001). Low cortisol and a flattening of expected daytime rhythm: Potential indices of risk in human development. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 515–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., & Vazquez, D. M. (2006). Stress neurobiology and developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 533–577.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Wewerka, S., Frenn, K., Long, J. D., & Griggs, C. (2009). Developmental changes in hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal activity over the transition to adolescence: Normative changes and associations with puberty. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 69–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halligan, S. L., Herbert, J., Goodyer, I., & Murray, L. (2007). Disturbances in morning cortisol secretion in association with maternal postnatal depression predict subsequent depressive symptomatology in adolescents. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 40–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ham, J., & Tronick, E. (2006). Infant resilience to the stress of the still-face. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 297–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hastings, P. D., Sullivan, C., McShane, K. E., Coplan, R. J., Utendale, W. T., & Vyncke, J. D. (2008). Parental socialization, vagal regulation, and preschoolers' anxious difficulties: Direct mothers and moderated fathers. Child Development, 79, 45–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heim, C., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001). The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: Preclinical and clinical studies. Biological Psychiatry, 49, 1023–1039.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hertzman, C. (1999). The biological embedding of early experience and its effects on health in adulthood. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896, 85–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill-Soderlund, A. L., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Propper, C., Calkins, S. D., Granger, D. A., Moore, G. A., et al. (2008). Parasympathetic and sympathetic responses to the strange situation in infants and mothers from avoidant and securely attached dyads. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 361–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinnant, J. B., & El-Sheikh, M. (2009). Children's externalizing and internalizing symptoms over time: The role of individual differences in patterns of RSA responding. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 1049–1061.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jamieson, J. P., Mendes, W. B., Blackstock, E., & Schmader, T. (2010). Turning the knots in your stomach into bows: Reappraising arousal improves performance on the GRE. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 208–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, A. (1964). The conduct of inquiry: Methodology for behavioral science. San Francisco, CA: Chandler.Google Scholar
Katz, L. F. (2007). Domestic violence and vagal reactivity to peer provocation. Biological Psychology, 74, 154–164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katz, L. F., & Gottman, J. M. (1995). Vagal tone protects children from marital conflict. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 83–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, L. F., & Gottman, J. M. (1997). Buffering children from marital conflict and dissolution. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 157–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keller, P. S., & El-Sheikh, M. (2009). Salivary alpha-amylase as a longitudinal predictor of children's externalizing symptoms: Respiratory sinus arrhythmia as a moderator of effects. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 633–643.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kennedy, A. E., Rubin, K. H., Hastings, P. D., & Maisel, B. (2004). Longitudinal relations between child vagal tone and parenting behavior: 2 to 4 years. Developmental Psychobiology, 45, 10–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kibler, J. L., Prosser, V. L., & Ma, M. (2004). Cardiovascular correlates of misconduct in children and adolescents. Journal of Psychophysiology, 18, 184–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kudielka, B. M., & Wüst, S. (2009). Human models in acute and chronic stress: Assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis activity and reactivity. Stress: International Journal on the Biology of Stress, 13, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leary, A., & Katz, L. F. (2004). Coparenting, family-level processes, and peer outcomes: The moderating role of vagal tone. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 593–608.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levine, S. (1957). Infantile experience and resistance to physiological stress. Science, 126, 405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lisonbee, J. A., Pendry, P., Mize, J., & Gwynn, E. P. (2010). Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal and sympathetic nervous system activity and children's behavioral regulation. Mind, Brain, and Education, 4, 171–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, D., Diorio, J., Tannenbaum, B., Caldji, C., Francis, D., Freedman, A., et al. (1997). Maternal care, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal responses to stress. Science, 277, 1659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lorber, M. F. (2004). Psychophysiology of aggression, psychopathy, and conduct problems: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 531–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lupien, S., McEwen, B., Gunnar, M., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 434–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S. (2006). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (pp. 739–795). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). The construct of resilience: Implications for interventions and social policies. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 857–885.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyons, D. M., Parker, K. J., & Schatzberg, A. F. (2010). Animal models of early life stress: Implications for understanding resilience. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 616–624.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcovitch, S., Leigh, J., Calkins, S. D., Leerks, E. M., O'Brien, M., & Blankson, A. N. (2010). Moderate vagal withdrawal in 3.5 year old children is associated with optimal performance on executive function tasks. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 603–608.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marsland, A. L., Bachen, E. A., Cohen, S., Rabin, B., & Manuck, S. B. (2002). Stress, immune reactivity and susceptibility to infectious disease. Physiology & Behavior, 77, 711–716.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A., Burt, K., Roisman, G., Obradovic, J., Long, J., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Resources and resilience in the transition to adulthood: Continuity and change. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 1071–1094.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S. (2007). Resilience in developing systems: Progress and promise as the fourth wave rises. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 921–930.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 491–495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Obradović, J. (2006). Competence and resilience in development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 13–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Obradović, J. (2008). Disaster preparation and recovery: Lessons from research on resilience in human development. Ecology and Society, 13, 9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Osofsky, J. D. (2010). Disasters and their impact on child development: Introduction to the special section. Child Development, 81, 1029–1039.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEwen, B. S. (1998). Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 171–179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S. (2000). Effects of adverse experiences for brain structure and function. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 721–731.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGowan, P. O., Sasaki, A., D'Alessio, A. C., Dymov, S., Labonté, B., Szyf, M., et al. (2009). Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain associates with childhood abuse. Nature Neuroscience, 12, 342–348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meaney, M., Aitken, D., Bhatnagar, S., Van Berkel, C., & Sapolsky, R. (1988). Postnatal handling attenuates neuroendocrine, anatomical, and cognitive impairments related to the aged hippocampus. Science, 238, 766–768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meaney, M. J. (2010). Epigenetics and the biological definition of Gene × Environment interactions. Child Development, 81, 41–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meaney, M. J., Diorio, J., Francis, D., Widdowson, J., LaPlante, P., Caldji, C., et al. (1996). Early environmental regulation of forebrain glucocorticoid receptor gene expression: Implications for adrenocortical responses to stress. Developmental Neuroscience, 18, 49–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, G. E., Chen, E., Fok, A. K., Walker, H., Lim, A., Nicholls, E. F., et al. (2009). Low early-life social class leaves a biological residue manifested by decreased glucocorticoid and increased proinflammatory signaling. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 14716–14721.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monroe, S. M., & Simons, A. D. (1991). Diathesis–stress theories in the context of life stress research: Implications for the depressive disorders. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 406–425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, G. A., Hill Soderlund, A. L., Propper, C. B., Calkins, S. D., Mills Koonce, W. R., & Cox, M. J. (2009). Mother–infant vagal regulation in the face to face still face paradigm is moderated by maternal sensitivity. Child Development, 80, 209–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Sessa, F. M., Avenevoli, S., & Essex, M. J. (2002). Temperamental vulnerability and negative parenting as interacting of child adjustment. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 461–471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Motti-Stefanidi, F., Pavlopoulos, V., Obradović, J., & Masten, A. S. (2008). Acculturation and adaptation of immigrant adolescents in Greek urban schools. International Journal of Psychology, 43, 45–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Neal, C. R., Brotman, L. M., Huang, K. Y., Gouley, K. K., Kamboukos, D., Calzada, E. J., et al. (2010). Understanding relations among early family environment, cortisol response, and child aggression via a prevention experiment. Child Development, 81, 290–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oberlander, T. F., Weinberg, J., Papsdorf, M., Grunau, R., Misri, S., & Devlin, A. M. (2008). Prenatal exposure to maternal depression, neonatal methylation of human glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) and infant cortisol stress response. Epigenetics, 3, 97–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Obradović, J. (2010). Effortful control and adaptive functioning of homeless children: Variable-focused and person-focused analyses. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31, 109–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obradović, J., & Boyce, W. T. (2009). Individual differences in behavioral, physiological, and genetic sensitivities to contexts: Implications for development and adaptation. Developmental Neuroscience, 31, 300–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obradović, J., & Boyce, W. T. (in press). The role of stress reactivity for child development: Indices, correlates and future directions. In Mayes, L. C. & Lewis, M. (Eds.), The environment of human development: A handbook of theory and measurement. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Obradović, J., Bush, N. R., & Boyce, W. T. (2011a). The effect of marital conflict and stress reactivity on externalizing and internalizing symptoms: The role of laboratory stressors. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 101–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obradović, J., Bush, N. R., & Boyce, W. T. (2011b). Physiological reactivity, social hierchical position, and adaptation in kindergarten children. Paper presented at the Society on Research in Child Development, Montreal.Google Scholar
Obradović, J., Bush, N. R., Stamperdahl, J., Adler, N. A., & Boyce, W. T. (2010). Biological sensitivity to context: The interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socio–emotional behavior and school readiness. Child Development, 81, 270–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Obradović, J., & Hipwell, A. (2010). Psychopathology and social competence during transition to adolescence: The role of family adversity and pubertal development. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 623–636.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oosterlaan, J., Geurts, H. M., Knol, D. L., & Sergeant, J. A. (2005). Low basal salivary cortisol is associated with teacher-reported symptoms of conduct disorder. Psychiatry Research, 134, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, K. J., Buckmaster, C. L., Lindley, S. E., Schatzberg, A. F., & Lyons, D. M. (2011). Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis physiology and cognitive control of behavior in stress inoculated monkeys. International Journal of Behavioral Development.Google Scholar
Parker, K. J., Buckmaster, C. L., Schatzberg, A. F., & Lyons, D. M. (2004). Prospective investigation of stress inoculation in young monkeys. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 933–941.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, K. J., Buckmaster, C. L., Sundlass, K., Schatzberg, A. F., & Lyons, D. M. (2006). Maternal mediation, stress inoculation, and the development of neuroendocrine stress resistance in primates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103, 3000–3005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, K. J., Rainwater, K. L., Buckmaster, C. L., Schatzberg, A. F., Lindley, S. E., & Lyons, D. M. (2007). Early life stress and novelty seeking behavior in adolescent monkeys. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32, 785–792.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porges, S. W. (2003). The polyvagal theory: Phylogenetic contributions to social behavior. Physiology & Behavior, 79, 503–513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74, 116–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pruessner, J. C., Kirschbaum, C., Meinlschmid, G., & Hellhammer, D. H. (2003). Two formulas for computation of the area under the curve represent measures of total hormone concentration versus time-dependent change. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28, 916–931.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Qin, S., Hermans, E. J., van Marle, H. J. F., Luo, J., & Fernández, G. (2009). Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 25–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quigley, K. S., & Stifter, C. A. (2006). A comparative validation of sympathetic reactivity in children and adults. Psychophysiology, 43, 357–365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Repetti, R. L., Robles, T. F., & Reynolds, B. (2011). Allostatic processes in the family. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 921–938.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, K. D., Troop-Gordon, W., & Granger, D. A. (2010). Individual differences in biological stress responses moderate the contribution of early peer victimization to subsequent depressive symptoms. Psychopharmacology, 214, 209–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 316–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (2006). Implications of resilience concepts for scientific understanding. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 1–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salomon, K., Matthews, K. A., & Allen, M. T. (2000). Patterns of sympathetic and parasympathetic reactivity in a sample of children and adolescents. Psychophysiology, 37, 842–849.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santucci, A. K., Silk, J. S., Shaw, D. S., Gentzler, A., Fox, N. A., & Kovacs, M. (2008). Vagal tone and temperament as predictors of emotion regulation strategies in young children. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 205–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M., & Munck, A. U. (2000). How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocrine Reviews, 21, 55–89.Google ScholarPubMed
Scheeringa, M. S., Zeanah, C. H., Myers, L., & Putnam, F. (2004). Heart period and variability findings in preschool children with posttraumatic stress symptoms. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 685–691.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schiefelbein, V. L., & Susman, E. J. (2006). Cortisol levels and longitudinal cortisol change as predictors of anxiety in adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 26, 397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seeman, T., Gruenewald, T., Karlamangla, A., Sidney, S., Liu, K., Mcewen, B., et al. (2010). Modeling multisystem biological risk in young adults: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study. American Journal of Human Biology, 22, 463–472.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seery, M. D., Holman, E. A., & Silver, R. C. (2010). Whatever does not kill us: Cumulative lifetime adversity, vulnerability, and resilience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 1025–1041.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shannon, K. E., Beauchaine, T. P., Brenner, S. L., Neuhaus, E., & Gatzke-Kopp, L. (2007). Familial and temperamental predictors of resilience in children at risk for conduct disorder and depression. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 701–727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shirtcliff, E. A., & Essex, M. J. (2008). Concurrent and longitudinal associations of basal and diurnal cortisol with mental health symptoms in early adolescence. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 690–703.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shirtcliff, E. A., Granger, D. A., Booth, A., & Johnson, D. (2005). Low salivary cortisol levels and externalizing behavior problems in youth. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 167–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sloan, E. K., Capitanio, J. P., Tarara, R. P., Mendoza, S. P., Mason, W. A., & Cole, S. W. (2007). Social stress enhances sympathetic innervation of primate lymph nodes: Mechanisms and implications for viral pathogenesis. Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 8857–8865.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stroud, L., Foster, E., Papandonatos, G., Handwerger, K., Granger, D., Kivlighan, K., et al. (2009a). Stress response and the adolescent transition: Performance versus peer rejection stressors. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 47–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stroud, L. R., Foster, E., Papandonatos, G. D., Handwerger, K., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., et al. (2009b). Stress response and the adolescent transition: Performance versus peer rejection stressors. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 47–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suess, P. E., Porges, S. W., & Plude, D. J. (1994). Cardiac vagal tone and sustained attention in school-age children. Psychophysiology, 31, 17–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suomi, S. J. (1997). Early determinants of behaviour: Evidence from primate studies. British Medical Bulletin, 53, 170–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Szyf, M., Weaver, I. C., Champagne, F. A., Diorio, J., & Meaney, M. J. (2005). Maternal programming of steroid receptor expression and phenotype through DNA methylation in the rat. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 26, 139–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarullo, A. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2006). Child maltreatment and the developing HPA axis. Hormones and Behavior, 50, 632–639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarullo, A. R., Mliner, S., & Gunnar, M. R. (2011). Inhibition and exuberance in preschool classrooms: Associations with peer social experiences and changes in cortisol across the preschool year. Developmental Psychology, 47, 1374–1388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van IJzendoorn, M. H., Caspers, K., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Beach, S. R. H., & Philibert, R. (2010). Methylation matters: Interaction between methylation density and serotonin transporter genotype predicts unresolved loss or trauma. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 405–407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Oers, H. J. J., de Kloet, E. R., Li, C., & Levine, S. (1998). The ontogeny of glucocorticoid negative feedback: Influence of maternal deprivation. Endocrinology, 139, 2838–2846.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Ryzin, M. J., Chatham, M., Kryzer, E., Kertes, D. A., & Gunnar, M. R. (2009). Identifying atypical cortisol patterns in young children: The benefits of group-based trajectory modeling. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 50–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vigil, J. M., Geary, D. C., Granger, D. A., & Flinn, M. V. (2010). Sex differences in salivary cortisol, alpha-amylase, and psychological functioning following Hurricane Katrina. Child Development, 81, 1228–1240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weaver, I. C. G., D'Alessio, A. C., Brown, S. E., Hellstrom, I. C., Dymov, S., Sharma, S., et al. (2007). The transcription factor nerve growth factor-inducible protein a mediates epigenetic programming: Altering epigenetic marks by immediate-early genes. Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 1756–1768.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weems, C. F., Zakem, A. H., Costa, N. M., Cannon, M. F., & Watts, S. E. (2005). Physiological response and childhood anxiety: Association with symptoms of anxiety disorders and cognitive bias. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 712–723.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, P. G., Suchy, Y., & Rau, H. K. (2009). Individual differences in executive functioning: Implications for stress regulation. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 37, 126–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, D. K., Kliewer, W., Plybon, L., & Sica, D. A. (2000). Socioeconomic status and blood pressure reactivity in healthy black adolescents. Hypertension, 35, 496–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolmer, L., Hamiel, D., & Laor, N. (2011). Preventing children's posttraumatic stress after disaster with teacher-based intervention: A controlled study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 340–348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yim, I. S., Quas, J. A., Cahill, L., & Hayakawa, C. M. (2010). Children's and adults' salivary cortisol responses to an identical psychosocial laboratory stressor. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 241–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar