Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-pnlb5 Total loading time: 0.001 Render date: 2025-10-31T12:31:09.657Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Multiple Episodes of Clay Alteration at the Precambrian/Paleozoic Unconformity, Appalachian Basin: Isotopic Evidence for Long-Distance and Local Fluid Migrations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2024

Karen Ziegler  and
Fred J. Longstaffe
Karen Ziegler*
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B7
Fred J. Longstaffe
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B7
*
†Present address: Department of Geology, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Chlorite and illite are commonly associated with ubiquitous secondary K-rich feldspar in the rocks located immediately above and below the Precambrian-Paleozoic unconformity in southwestern Ontario, and elsewhere in the mid-continent of North America. This alteration assemblage is attributed to long-distance migration of hot brines driven westward by orogenic processes originating along the eastern seaboard of North America. The δD and δ18O values of chlorite and illite, plus K-Ar dates for secondary K-rich feldspar and illite, were used to determine the nature, origin, and timing of the fluids that altered Precambrian granites and their overlying rocks in southwestern Ontario. The δ18O values of the chlorite-forming fluids are best explained by initial hot brines (≥50°C) evolved mostly from seawater. Secondary K-rich feldspar formation followed shortly thereafter, as the fluids cooled and perhaps mixed with meteoric water. Regional migration of the brines was induced by Taconic orogenic events to the east. The hydrogen and oxygen isotopic compositions for the secondary illite of the early to mid-Carboniferous indicate its crystallization from local meteoric water at low temperatures (40–55°C). Infiltration of local meteoric water into the Paleozoic and uppermost altered Precambrian rocks occurred during uplift, erosion, and subaerial exposure of local arches in southern Ontario. The local basement reactivation and associated secondary illite formation in this portion of the North American hinterland was likely a distal expression of east-coast Acadian and Alleghanian orogenic activity.

Keywords

AlterationBrinesChloriteIlliteIsotopesMeteoric WaterPrecambrian UnconformityOntario

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Clays and Clay Minerals , Volume 48 , Issue 4 , August 2000 , pp. 474 - 493
Copyright
Copyright © 2000, The Clay Minerals Society

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Aagaard, P. Roalset, E. and Welhaven, J.E., 1988 Diagenetic observations from North Sea sandstone reservoirs: A comparison with formation water chemistry Clastic Diagenesis in Hydrocarbon Reservoirs and Shales .Google Scholar
Aleinikoff, J.N. Walter, M. Kunk, M.J. and Hearn, P.P. Jr., 1993 Do ages of authigenic K-feldspar date the formation of Mississippi Valley-type Pb-Zn deposits, central and southeastern United States?: Pb isotopic evidence Geology 21 73–76.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, T.F. Arthur, M.A., Anderson, T.F. Arthur, M.A. Kaplan, I.R. Veizer, J. and Land, L.S., 1983 Stable isotopes of oxygen and carbon and their application to sedimentologic and paleoenvironmental problems Stable Isotopes in Sedimentary Geology .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, D.A. Girard, J.-P. Aronson, J.L., Houseknecht, D.W. and Pittman, E.D., 1992 K/Ar dating of illite diagenesis in the Middle Ordovician St. Peter sandstone, Central Michigan Basin Origin, Diagenesis, and Petrophysics of Clay Minerals in Sandstones 35–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bethke, C.M., 1986 Hydrologic constraints on the genesis of the Upper Mississippi Valley district from Illinois Basin brines Economic Geology 81 233–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bethke, C.M. and Marshak, S., 1990 Brine migration across North America—The plate tectonics of groundwater Annual Reviews in Earth and Planetary Sciences 18 287–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beyth, M. Longstaffe, F.J. Ayalon, A. and Matthews, A., 1997 Epigenetic alteration of the Precambrian igneous complex at Mount Timna, southern Israel: Oxygen-isotope studies Israel Journal of Earth Sciences 46 1–11.Google Scholar
Bigeleisen, J. Pearlman, M.L. and Prosser, H.C., 1952 Conversion of hydrogenic materials to hydrogen for stable isotopic analysis Analytical Chemistry 24 1356–1357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capuano, R.M., 1992 The temperature dependence of hydrogen isotope fractionation between clay minerals and water: Evidence from a geopressured system Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 56 2547–2554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, T.R. and Carter, T., 1990 Introduction: Some notes on the geological setting and petroleum resources of southwestern Ontario Geology of Southwestern Ontario (Core Workshop) .Google Scholar
Carter, T.R. Easton, R.M. and Carter, T., 1990 Extension of Grenville basement southwestern Ontario: Lithology and tectonic subdivisions Geology of Southwestern Ontario (Core Workshop) .Google Scholar
Cathelineau, M., 1988 Cation site occupancy in chlorites and illites as a function of temperature Clay Minerals 23 471–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clayton, R.N. and Mayeda, T.K., 1963 The use of bromine pentafluoride in the extraction of oxygen from oxides and silicates for isotopic analysis Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 27 43–52 10.1016/0016-7037(63)90071-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, D.R., 1985 A preliminary evaluation of oxygen isotopic exchange between chlorite and water Geological Society of America Annual Meeting, Abstracts with Programs 50.Google Scholar
Cole, D.R. and Ripley, E.M., 1999 Oxygen isotope fractionation between chlorite and water from 170 to 350°C: A preliminary assessment based on partial exchange and fluid/rock experiments Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 63 449–457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, D.R. Mottl, M.L. and Ohmoto, H., 1987 Isotopic exchange in mineral-fluid systems. II. Oxygen and hydrogen isotopic investigation of the experimental basalt-seawater system Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 51 1523–1538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coniglio, M. and Williams-Jones, A.E., 1992 Diagenesis of Ordovician carbonates from the north-east Michigan Basin, Manitoulin Island area, Ontario Sedimentology 39 813–836.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craig, H., 1961 Isotopic variations in meteoric waters Science 133 1702–1703.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Caritat, P. Hutcheon, I. and Walshe, J.L., 1993 Chlorite geothermometry: A review Clays and Clay Minerals 41 219–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dix, G.R. and Molgat, M.P., 1998 Character of the Middle Ordovician Sauk-Tippecanoe sequence boundary in the Ottawa Embayment (eastern Ontario): Possible evidence for platform-interior, Taconic tectonism Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 35 603–619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doe, B.B. Stuckless, J.S. and Delevaux, M.H., 1983 The possible bearing of the granite of the UPH Deep Drill Holes, northern Illinois, on the origin of Mississippi Valley Type ore deposits Journal Geophysical Research 88 7335–7345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drake, A.A. Jr. Sinha, A.K. Laird, J. Guy, R.E., Hatcher, R.D. Jr. Thomas, W.A. and Viele, G.W., 1989 The Taconic Orogeny The Geology of North America Volume F-2, The Appalachian-Ouachita Orogen in the United States Boulder, Colorado Geological Society of America 101–177.Google Scholar
Driesner, T., 1997 The effect of pressure on deuterium-hydrogen fractionation in high-temperature water Science 277 791–794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duffin, M.E., 1989 Nature and origin of authigenic K-feldspar in Precambrian basement rocks of the North American midcontinent Geology 17 765–768.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duffin, M.E. Lee, M. Klein, G. and Hay, R.L., 1989 Potassic diagenesis of Cambrian sandstones and Precambrian granitic basement in UHP-3 Deep Hole, Upper Mississippi Valley, U.S.A Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 59 848–861.Google Scholar
Fisher, J.H. Barratt, M.W. Droste, J.B. and Shaver, R.H., 1988 Michigan Basin The Geology of North America Vol D-2, Sedimentary Cover—North American Craton, U.S. Boulder, Colorado Geological Society of America 361–382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foster, M.D., 1962 Interpretation of the Composition and a Classification of the Chlorites 33.Google Scholar
Girard, J.-P. and Barnes, D.A., 1995 Illitisation and paleothermal regimes in the Middle Ordovician St. Peter Sandstone, central Michigan Basin: K-Ar, oxygen isotope, and fluid inclusion data American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 79 49–69.Google Scholar
Graham, C.M., 1981 Experimental hydrogen isotope studies III: Diffusion of hydrogen in hydrous minerals, and stable isotope exchange in metamorphic rocks Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 76 216–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, C.M. Sheppard, S.M.E. and Heaton, T.H.E., 1980 Experimental hydrogen isotope fractionation factors in the system epidote-H2O, zoisite-H2O and (AlOOH)-H2O Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 44 353–364.Google Scholar
Graham, C.M. Harmon, R.S. and Sheppard, S.M.F., 1984 Experimental hydrogen isotope studies: Hydrogen isotope exchange between amphibole and water American Mineralogist 69 128–138.Google Scholar
Graham, C.M. Viglino, J.A. and Harmon, R.S., 1987 Experimental study of hydrogen-isotope exchange between aluminous chlorite and of hydrogen diffusion in chlorite American Mineralogist 72 566–579.Google Scholar
Harper, D.A. Longstaffe, F.J. Wadleigh, M.A. and McNutt, R.H., 1995 Secondary K-feldspar at the Precambrian-Paleozoic unconformity, southwestern Ontario Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 32 1432–1450.Google Scholar
Hatcher, R.D. Jr., 1987 Tectonics of the southern and central Appalachian Internides Annual Reviews in Earth and Planetary Science 15 337–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hay, R.L. and Liu, J., 1991 Kaolinite was a precursor to diagenetic K-feldspar of Paleozoic age in Wisconsin Clay Minerals Society, 28th Annual Meeting, Abstract .Google Scholar
Hay, R.L. Lee, M. Kolata, D.R. Mathews, J.C. and Morton, J.P., 1988 Episodic potassic diagenesis of Ordovician tuffs in the Mississippi Valley area Geology 16 743–747.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hay, R.L. Liu, J. Deino, A. and Kyser, T.K., 1992 Age of K-feldspar authigenesis in lower Paleozoic and uppermost Precambrian rocks of the Mississippi Valley area Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs 24 198.Google Scholar
Hayes, J.B., 1970 Polytypism of chlorite in sedimentary rocks Clays and Clay Minerals 18 285–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hearn, P.P. Jr. and Sutter, J.F., 1985 Authigenic potassium feldspar in Cambrian carbonates: Evidence of Alleghian brine migration Science 228 1529–1531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hearn, P.P. Jr. Sutter, J.E. and Belkin, H.E., 1987 Evidence for Late-Paleozoic brine migration in Cambrian Carbonate rocks of the central and southern Appalachians: Implications for Mississippi Valley-type sulfide mineralisation Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 51 1323–1334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heyl, A.V. Landis, G.P. and Zartman, R.E., 1974 Isotopic evidence for the origin of Mississippi Valley-Type mineral deposits: A review Economic Geology 69 992–1006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holser, W.T. and Burns, S.J., 1979 Trace elements and isotopes in evaporites Marine Minerals 295–436.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hornibrook, E.R.C. and Longstaffe, F.J., 1996 Berthierine from the Lower Cretaceous Cleawater formation, Alberta, Canada Clays and Clays Minerals 44 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurley, P.M. Fairbairn, H.W. and Pinson, W.H. Jr. and Hower, J., 1962 Unmetamorphosed minerals in the Gunflint Formation used to test the age of the Animikie Journal of Geology 70 489–492.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, S.A. and Beales, F.W., 1967 An aspect of sedimentary basin evolution: The concentration of Mississippi Valley-type ores during late stage diagenesis Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geologists 15 383–433.Google Scholar
Jiang, W.-T. Peacor, D.R. and Buseck, P.R., 1994 Chlorite geothermometer? - Contamination and apparent octahedral vacancies Clays and Clay Minerals 42 593–605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, M.D. Armstrong, D.K. Sanford, B.V. Telford, P.G. Rutka, M.A., Thurston, P.C. Williams, H.R. Sutcliffe, R.H. and Stott, G.M., 1992 Paleozoic and Mesozoic geology of Ontario Geology of Ontario 907–1008.Google Scholar
Kesler, S.E. Vennemann, T.W. Frederickson, C. Breithaupt, A. Vazquez, R. and Furman, F.C., 1997 Hydrogen and oxygen isotope evidence for origin of MVT-forming brines, southern Appalachians Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 61 1513–1523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirsimäe, K. Jørgensen, P. and Kalm, V., 1999 Low-temperature diagenetic illite-smectite in Lower Cambrian clays in North Estonia Clay Minerals 34 151–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knauth, L.P. and Beeunas, M.A., 1986 Isotope geochemistry of fluid inclusions in Permian halite with implications for the isotopic history of ocean water and the origin of saline formation waters Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 50 419–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kombrink, M. and Clayton, R.N., 1983 Oxygen isotope composition of minerals from Illinois Deep Drill Hole Granites Journal of Geophysical Research 88/B9 7305–7306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krueger, H.W. and Woodward, H.H., 1972 Potassium-argon dating of sanidine-rich beds in the St. Peter Sandstone, Wisconsin Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs 4 568–569.Google Scholar
Kuroda, Y. Suzuoki, T. Matsuo, S. and Shirozu, H., 1976 A preliminary study of D/H ratios of chlorites Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 57 223–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyser, T.K., 1986 Chemical and stable isotope compositions of anorogenic granite from Stephenson County, Illinois 1622 139–150.Google Scholar
Leach, D.L. Viets, J.G. and Rowan, L., 1984 Appalachian-Ouachita orogeny and Mississippi Valley-type lead-zinc deposits Geological Society America, Abstracts with Programs 16 572.Google Scholar
Lee, M., 1984 Diagenesis of the Permian Rotliegendes Sandstone, North Sea: K/Ar, O18/O16 and petrologic evidence .Google Scholar
Lee, M. and Aronson, J.L., 1991 Repetitive occurrence of potassic diagenesis in the region of the Upper Mississippi Valley (UMV) mineral district: Implications for a persistent paleo-hydrological setting favourable for diagenesis Clay Minerals Society, 28th Annual Meeting 98.Google Scholar
Legall, F.D. Barnes, C.R. and Macqueen, R.W., 1981 Thermal maturation, burial history and hotspot development, Paleozoic strata of southern Ontario-Quebec, from conodont and acritarch colour alteration studies Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 29 492–539.Google Scholar
Liu, J. Hay, R.L. and Aronson, J.L., 1996 Age and origin of mixed-layered illite/smectite diagenesis at the Precambrian/Cambrian unconformity in west-central Wisconsin and southern Missouri Clay Minerals Society, 33th Annual Meeting 110.Google Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J. and Ayalon, A., 1990 Hydrogen isotope geochemistry of diagenetic clay minerals from Cretaceous sandstones, Alberta, Canada: Evidence for exchange Applied Geochemistry 5 657–668.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, D.B. Woodward, H.H. and DePaolo, D.J., 1986 K-Ca-Ar systematics of authigenic sanidine from Waukau, Wisconsin, and the diffusivity of argon Geology 14 936–938.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marumo, K. Nagasawa, K. and Kuroda, Y., 1980 Mineralogy and hydrogen isotope geochemistry of clay minerals in the Ohnuma geofhermal area, northeastern Japan Earth and Planetary Science Letters 47 255–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marumo, K. Longstaffe, F.J. and Matsubaya, O., 1995 Stable isotope geochemistry of clay minerals from fossil and active hydrothermal systems, southwestern Hokkaido, Japan Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59 2545–2559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mensing, T.M. and Faure, G., 1983 Identification and age of neoformed Paleozoic feldspar (adularia) in a Precambrian basement core from Scioto County, Ohio, USA Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 82 327–333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meunier, J.D., 1984 Les phénomènes d’oxydo-réduction dabs un gisement urano-vanadifère de type tabulaire: les gres du Salt-Wash (Jurassique Supérieur), district minier de Cottonwood-Wash (Utah, Etats Unis) Geology and Geochemistry of Uranium .Google Scholar
Miller, J.D. and Kent, D.V., 1988 Paleomagnetism of the Silurian-Devonian Andreas redbeds: Evidence for an Early Devonian supercontinent? Geology 16 195–198.Google Scholar
Moore, D.M. and Reynolds, RC Jr, 1989 X-ray Diffraction and the Identification and Analysis of Clay Minerals New York Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Oliver, J., 1986 Fluids expelled tectonically from orogenic belts: Their role in hydrocarbon migration and other geological phenomena Geology 14 99–102.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Onuma, N. Clayton, R.N. and Mayeda, T.K., 1972 Oxygen isotope cosmothermometer Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 36 169–188.Google Scholar
Osberg, P.H. Tull, J.F. Robinson, P. Hon, R. Butler, J.R., Hatcher, R.D. Jr. Thomas, W.A. and Viele, G.W., 1989 The Acadian Orogeny The Geology of North America Volume F-2, The Appalachian-Ouachita Orogen in the United States 179–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quinlan, G.M. and Beaumont, C., 1984 Appalachian thrusting, lithospheric flexure, and the Paleozoic stratigraphy of the Eastern Interior of North America Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 21 973–996.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowan, L. Leach, D.L. and Viets, J.G., 1984 Evidence for a late Pennsylvanian-early Permian regional thermal event in Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas and Oklahoma Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 16 640.Google Scholar
Sakai, H. and Tsutsumi, M., 1978 D/H fractionation factors between serpentine and water at 100 to 500°C and 2000bar water pressure, and the D/H ratios of natural serpentines Earth and Planetary Science Letters 40 231–242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanford, B.V. Thompson, F.J. and McFall, G.H., 1985 Plate tectonics—A possible controlling mechanism in the development of hydrocarbon traps in southwestern Ontario Bulletin of the Canadian Petroleum Geologists 33 52–71.Google Scholar
Satake, H. and Matsuo, S., 1984 Hydrogen isotopic fractionation factor between brucite and water in the temperature range from 100° to 500°C Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 86 19–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Savin, S.M. Lee, M. and Bailey, S.W., 1988 Isotopic studies of phyllos-ilicates Hydrous Phyllosilicates (Exclusive of Micas), Reviews in Mineralogy, Volume 19 Washington, D.C. Mineralogical Society of America 189–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Secor, D.T. Jr. Snoke, A.W. and Dallmeyer, R.D., 1986 Character of the Alleghanian orogeny in the southern Appalachians: Part III. Regional tectonic relations Geological Society of America Bulletin 97 1345–1353.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shau, Y.-H. Peacor, D.R. and Essene, E.J., 1990 Corrensite and mixed-layer chlorite/corrensite in metabasalt from northern Taiwan: TEM/AEM, EMPA, XRD, and optical studies Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 105 123–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheppard, S.M.F. and Gilg, H.A., 1996 Stable isotope geochemistry of clay minerals Clay Minerals 31 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shieh, Y.-N., 1983 Oxygen isotope study of Precambrian granites from the Illinois Deep Hole Project Journal of Geophysical Research 7300–7304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shieh, Y.-N. and Schwarcz, H.P., 1974 Oxygen isotope studies of granite and migmatite, Grenville province of Ontario, Canada Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 38 21–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suzuoki, T. and Epstein, S., 1976 Hydrogen isotope fractionation between OH-bearing minerals and water Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 40 1229–1240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, H.P. Jr., 1974 The application of oxygen and hydrogen isotope studies to problems of hydrothermal alteration and ore deposition Economic Geology 69 843–883.Google Scholar
Tellier, K.E. Hluchy, M.M. Walker, J.R. and Reynolds, R.C. Jr., 1988 Application of high gradient magnetic separation (HGMS) to structural and compositional studies of clay mineral mixtures Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 58 761–763.Google Scholar
Tiller, C. and Selleck, B., 1992 Mineralogy and geochemistry of sub-Potsdam sandstone Proterozoic gneisses, northern New York State Geological Society of America, North-em Section, Abstracts with Programs 24 81.Google Scholar
Velde, B., 1965 Experimental determination of muscovite polymorph stabilities American Mineralogist 50 436–499.Google Scholar
Vennemann, T.W. and O’Neil, J.R., 1993 A simple and inexpensive method of hydrogen isotope and water analyses of minerals and rocks based on zinc reagent Chemical Geology Isotope Geoscience Section 103 227–234.Google Scholar
Vennemann, T.W. and O’Neil, J.R., 1996 Hydrogen isotope exchange reactions between hydrous minerals and molecular hydrogen: I. A new approach for the determination of hydrogen isotope fractionation at moderate temperatures Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 60 2437–2451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, J.R., 1989 Polytypism of chlorite in very low grade metamorphic rocks American Mineralogist 74 738–743.Google Scholar
Walker, J.R., 1993 Chlorite polytype geothermometry Clays and Clay Minerals 41 260–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, J.R. and Thompson, G.R., 1990 Structural variations in chlorite and illite in a diagenetic sequence from the Imperial Valley, California Clays and Clay Minerals 38 315–321.Google Scholar
Weaver, C.E. Highsmith, P.B. Wampler, J.M. and Weaver, C.E., 1984 Chlorite Shale-Slate Metamorphism in the Southern Appalachians Amsterdam Elsevier 99–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wenner, D.B. and Taylor, H.P. Jr., 1971 Temperature of serpentinisation of ultramafic rocks based on O18VO16 fractionation between coexisting serpentine and magnetite Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 32 165–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wenner, D.B. and Taylor, H.P. Jr., 1976 Oxygen and hydrogen isotope studies of a Precambrian granite-rhyolite terrane, St. Francois Mountains, southeastern Missouri Geological Society of America Bulletin 87 1587–1598.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winder, C.G. and Sanford, B.V., 1972 Stratigraphy and paleontology of the Paleozoic rocks of southern Ontario XXIV International Geological Congress A45 C45.Google Scholar
Ziegler, K. Longstaffe, F.J., Hendry, J. Carey, P. Parnell, J. Ruffel, A. and Worden, R., 1997 Hydrogen isotopes from clay minerals and fluid flow along the Precambrian/Cambrian unconformity in SW Ontario, Canada Geoftuids II ′97 - Extended Abstract Volume 343–346.Google Scholar
Ziegler, K. and Longstaffe, F.J., 2000 Clay mineral authigenesis along a mid-continental scale fluid-conduit in Paleozoic sedimentary rocks from southern Ontario, Canada Clay Minerals 35 239–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar