Hostname: page-component-7f64f4797f-42qgm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-11-07T05:04:18.421Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Second language reading research: Problems and possibilities

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 November 2008

Keiko Koda
Keiko Koda*
Affiliation:
Ohio University
*
Department of Linguistics, Ohio University, 103 Gordy Hall, Athens, OH 45701
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A major purpose of this article is to examine first language (L1) reading theories from second language (L2) perspectives and, in so doing, to uncover significant research voids related to L2 problems. The article first considers the unique aspects of L2 reading in order to identify dimensions in which its theory must differ from accepted L1 constructs. It then discusses three fundamental distinctions that separate L1 and L2 reading: (a) the consequences of prior reading experience; (b) the effects of crosslinguistic processing; and (c) the compensatory devices stemming from the efforts of learners with limited linguistic knowledge to solve comprehension problems. Finally, several pedagogically oriented research themes which may be helpful in evaluating the instructional utility of current L2 reading theories are delineated.

Information

Type
Articles
Information
Applied Psycholinguistics , Volume 15 , Issue 1 , January 1994 , pp. 1 - 28
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

REFERENCES

Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Albert, M. L. & Obler, L. K. (1978). The bilingual brain: Neuropsychological and neurolinguistic aspects of bilingualism. New York: Academic.Google Scholar
Alderson, J. C. & Urquhart, A. H. (1985). This test is unfair: I'm not an economist. In Hauptman, P., LeBlanc, R. & Wesche, M. B. (Eds.), Second language performance testing/ L'Evaluation de la “performance” en langue seconde (pp. 25–44). Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, R. C. & Freebody, P. (1981). Vocabulary knowledge. In Guthrie, J. T. (Ed.), Comprehension and teaching: Research review (pp. 77–117). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.Google Scholar
Anderson, R. C. & Freebody, P. (1983). Reading comprehension and the assessment and acquisition of word knowledge. In Hutson, B. (Ed.), Advances in reading/language research: A research annual (pp. 231–256). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, R. C. & Nagy, W. E. (1991). Word meaning. In Barr, R., Kamil, M. L., Mosenthal, P. & Pearson, P. D. (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2. pp. 512–538). New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1966). Short term memory for word sequences as a function of acoustic, semantic, and formal similarity. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 18, 362–365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, L., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Metacognitive skills and reading. In Pearson, P. D. (Ed.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 353–394). New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Balota, D., Pollasek, A. & Rayner, K. (1985). The interaction of contextual constraints and parafoveal visual information in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 17, 364–390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barker, T. A., Torgesen, I. & Wagner, R. K. (1992). The role of orthographic processing skills on five different reading tasks. Reading Research Quarterly. 27, 334–345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnitz, J. (1986). Toward understanding the effects of cross-cultural schemata and discourse structure on second language reading comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior, 18(2), 95–116.Google Scholar
Bates, E., & MacWhinney, B. (1989). Functionalism and the competition model. In MacWhinney, B. & Bates, E. (Eds.), The crosslinguistic study of sentence processing (pp. 3–73). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bates, E., McNew, S., MacWhinney, B., Devescovi, A., & Smith, S. (1982). Functional constraints on sentence processing: A cross-linguistic study. Cognition. 11, 245–299.Google Scholar
Bensoussan, M., & Laufer, B. (1984). Lexical guessing in context in EFL reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 7, 15–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berlin, B. & Kay, P. (1969). Basic color terms: Their universality and evolution. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Berman, R. (1986). A crosslinguistic perspective: Morphology and syntax. In Fletcher, P. & Garman, M. (Eds.), Language acquisition: Studies in first language development (2nd ed., pp. 429–447). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernhardt, E. B. (1987). Cognitive processes in L2: An examination of reading behaviors. In Lantolf, J. & Labarca, A. (Eds.), Delaware symposia on language studies: Research in second language acquisition in the classroom setting (pp. 35–50). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, E. B. (1991). A psycholinguistic perspective on second language literacy. AILA Review, 8, 31–44.Google Scholar
Bley-Vroman, R. (1989). What is the logical problem of foreign language learning? In Gass, S. M. & Schachter, J. (Eds.), Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition (pp. 41–68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowey, J. A. & Francis, J. (1991). Phonological analysis as a function of age and exposure to reading instruction. Applied Psycholinguistics, 12, 91–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, L. & Bryant, P. E. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read – A casual connection. Nature, 301, 419–421.Google Scholar
Brown, T. & Haynes, M. (1985). Literacy background and reading development in a second language. In Carr, T. H. (Ed.), The development of reading skills (pp. 19–34). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Bryant, P. E., MacLean, M. & Bradley, L. L. (1990). Rhyme, language, and children's reading. Applied Psycholinguistics, 11, 237–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byrne, B., Freebody, P. & Gates, A. (1992). Longitudinal data on the relations of word- reading strategies to comprehension, reading time, and phonemic awareness. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 140–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calfee, R. C. & Drum, P. A. (1986). Research on teaching reading. In Wittrock, M. C. (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 804–849). New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Carrell, P. L. (1983). Three components of background knowledge in reading comprehension. Language Learning, 33, 183–207.Google Scholar
Carrel, P. L. (1984). Schema theory and ESL reading: Classroom implications and applications. Modern Language Journal, 68, 332–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrell, P. L. (1986). [Review of Reading development and cohesion]. Language Learning, 36(3), 377–385.Google Scholar
Carrell, P. L. (1988). Some causes of text-boundedness and schema interference in ESL reading. In Carrell, P., Devine, J. & Eskey, D. (Eds.), Interactive approaches to second language reading (pp. 101–113). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrell, P. L. (1989). Metacognitive awareness and second language reading. Modern Language Journal, 73, 121–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrell, P. L. & Eisterhold, J. C. (1983). Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, 17, 553–573.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1971). Development of native language skills beyond the early years. In Carroll, Reed (Ed.), The learning of language (pp. 97–156). New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts.Google Scholar
Clancy, P. (1980). Referential choice in English and Japanese narrative discourse. In Chafe, W. L. (Ed.), The pear stories (pp. 127–202). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Clark, H. H. & Clark, E. V. (1977). Psychology and language: An introduction topsycholinguistics. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Clarke, M. A. (1980). The short circuit hypothesis of ESL reading or when language competence interferes with reading performance. Modern Language Journal, 64, 203–209.Google Scholar
Cohen, A. D., Olshtain, E. & Rosenstein, D. S. (1986). Advanced EFL apologies: What remains to be learned? International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 62, 51–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connor, U. (1984). Recall of text: differences between first and second language readers. TESOL Quarterly, 18, 239–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connor, U. (1987). Argumentative patterns in student essays: cross-cultural differences.In Connor, U. & Kaplan, R. B. (Eds.), Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 text (pp. 57–71). Reading. MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Connor, U. & McCagg, P. (1987). A contrastive study of English expository prose paraphrases. In Connor, U. & Kaplan, R. B. (Eds.), Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 text (pp. 73–86). Reading. MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Conrad, R. (1964). Acoustic confusion in immediate memory. British Journal of Psychology, 55, 75–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49, 222–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. (1986). Empowering minority students: A framework for intervention. Harvard Educational Review, 56, 18–36.Google Scholar
Cummins, J. (1991). Interdependence of first- and second-language proficiency in bilingual children. In Bialystok, E. (Ed.), Language processing in bilingual children (pp. 70–89). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. & Mulcahy, R. (1978). Orientation to language in Ukrainian-English bilingual children. Child Development, 49, 1239–1242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J., Swain, M., Nakajima, K., Handscombe, J. & Green, D. (1981, June). Linguistic interdependence in Japanese and Vietnamese students. Report prepared for the Inter-America Research Associates. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.Google Scholar
Daneman, M. (1991). Individual differences in reading skills. In Barr, R., Karnil, M. L., Mosenthal, P. & Pearson, P. D. (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 512–538). New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Daneman, M. & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19, 450–466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daneman, M. & Carpenter, P. A. (1983). Individual differences in integrating information between and within sentences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9, 561–584.Google Scholar
Davis, F. B. (1968). Research in comprehension in reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 3, 499–545.Google Scholar
Devine, J. (1987). General language competence and adult second language reading. In Devine, J.Carrell, P. L. & Eskey, D. E. (Eds.), Research in reading English as a second language (pp. 73–87). Washington, DC: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.Google Scholar
Devine, J. (1988). A case study of two readers: Models of reading and reading performance. In Devine, J., Carrell, P. L. & Eskey, D. E. (Eds.), Interactive approaches to second language reading (pp. 127–139). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Doctor, E. A. & Coltheart, M. (1980). Children's use of phonological encoding when reading for meaning. Memory and Cognition, 8, 195–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duin, A. H. & Graves, M. F. (1987). Intensive vocabulary instruction as a prewriting technique. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 311–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durgunoglu, Y., Nagy, W. E. & Hancin, B. J. (1992, April). Cross-language transfer in Spanish and English word recognition processes. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
Eckman, F. (1984). Universals, typologies, and interlanguage. In Rutherford, W. (Ed.), Language universals and second language acquisition (pp. 79–105). Philadelphia: John Benjainins.Google Scholar
Ervin, S. M. & Osgood, C. E. (1954). Second language learning and bilingualism. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49, 139–146.Google Scholar
Favreau, M. & Segalowitz, N. S. (1982). Second language reading in fluent bilinguals. Applied Psycholinguistics, 3, 329–341.Google Scholar
Ferreiro, E. (1986). The interplay between information and assimilation in beginning literacy. In Teale, W. H. & Sulzby, E. (Eds.), Emergent literacy: Writing and reading (pp. 15–49). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Flynn, S. (1987). A parameter-setting model of L2 acquisition: Experimental studies in anaphora. Hiagham, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.Google Scholar
Flynn, S. (1989). The role of the head-initial/head-final parameter in the acquisition of English relative clauses by adult Spanish and Japanese speakers. In Gass, S. M. & Schachter, J. (Eds.), Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition (pp. 89–108). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flynn, S., & Espinal, I. (1985). The head-initial/head-final parameters in adult Chinese L2 acquisition of English. Second Language Research, 1, 93–117.Google Scholar
Forster, K. I., & Chambers, S. M. (1973). Lexical access and naming time. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12, 627–635.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gairns, B. (1992). Cognitive processing in ESL reading. Unpublished master's thesis, Ohio University, Athens, OH.Google Scholar
Garcia, G. E. (1991). Factors influencing the English reading test performance of Spanish- speaking Hispanic children. Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 371–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gass, S. (1979). Language transfer and universal grammatical relations. Language Learning, 29(2), 327–344.Google Scholar
Gass, S. (1983). Language transfer and universal grammatical relations. In Gass, S. & Selinker, L. (Eds.), Language transfer in language learning (pp. 69–82). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Gass, S. (1987). The resolution of conflicts among competing systems: A bidirectional perspective. Applied Psycholinguistics, 8, 329–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gass, S. (1989). How do learners resolve linguistic conflicts? In Gass, S. & Schachter, J. (Eds.), Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition (pp. 183–199). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gass, S. & Schachter, J. (Eds.). (1989). Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Geva, E. & Shany, M. (1992, 04). Cognitive and linguistic predictors of emerging reading skills in first and second language – A longitudinal study. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
Gleitman, L. R. (1985). Orthographic resources affect reading acquisition – If they are used. Remedial and Special Education, 6, 24–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glushko, R. J. (1979). The organization and activation of orthographic knowledge in reading aloud. Journal of Erperimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 3, 674–691.Google Scholar
Goodman, K. S. (1973). Psycholinguistic universals in the reading process. In Smith, F. (Ed.), Psycholinguistics and reading (pp. 21–27). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
Gough, P. B. (1983). Context, form, and interaction. In Rayner, K. (Ed.), Eye movements in reading: Perceptual and lan guage processes (pp. 203–211). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Graves, M. F. (1986). Vocabulary learning and instruction. In Rothkopf, E. Z. (Ed.), Review of research in education (pp. 49–89). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.Google Scholar
Graves, M. F. (1987). The roles of instruction in fostering vocabulary development. In McKeown, M. G. & Curtis, M. E. (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 165–184). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Gundel, J. K. & Tarone, E. E. (1983). Language transfer and the acquisition of pronominal anaphora. In Gaas, S. & Selinker, L. (Eds.), Language transfer in language learning (pp. 281–296). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Guthrie, J. T. (1988). Locating information documents: Examination of a cognitive model. Reading Research Quarterly, 23(2), 178–199.Google Scholar
Hakuta, K. (1976). A case study of a Japanese child learning English as a second language. Language Learning, 26, 321–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hakuta, K. (1982). Interaction between particles and word order in the comprehension and production of simple sentences in Japanese children. Developmental Psychology, 18, 62–76.Google Scholar
Hancin-Bhatt, B. & Nagy, W. (1992, April). Cognate and morphological awareness in second language reading. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
Harrington, M. (1987). Processing transfer: Language-specific processing strategies as a source of interlanguage variation. Applied Psycholinguistics, 8, 351–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrington, M. & Sawyer, M. (1992). L2 working memory capacity and L2 reading skill. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 25–38.Google Scholar
Hasuike, R., Tzeng, O. & Hung, D. (1986). Script effects and cerebral lateralization: The case of Chinese characters. In Vaid, J. (Ed.), Language processing in bilinguals: Psycholinguistic and neurological perspectives (pp. 275–288). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Hasuike, R., Tzeng, O. & Hung, D. (1987). Argumentative patterns in student essays: cross-cultural differences. In Connor, U. & Kaplan, R. B. (Eds.), Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 text (pp. 57–71). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Hatch, E., Polin, P., & Part, S. (1974). Acoustic scanning and syntactic processing: Three reading experiments - First and second language learners. Journal of Reading Behavior, 6, 275–285.Google Scholar
Hayries, M., & Carr, T. H. (1990). Writing system background and second language reading: A component skills analysis of English reading by native speaker-readers of Chinese. In Carr, T. H. & Levy, B. A. (Eds.), Reading and its development: Component skills approaches (pp. 375–421). San Diego, CA: Academic.Google Scholar
Henderson, L. (Ed.). (1984). Orthographies and reading: Perspective from cognitive psychology. neuropsychology and linguistics. Hilisdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Henderson, L. (1985). Issues in the modeling of pronunciation assembly in normal reading. In Patterson, K. E., Marshall, J. C. & Coltheart, M. (Eds.), Surface dyslexia (pp. 459–508). Hillsdale, NJ: Eribaum.Google Scholar
Hintzman, D. L. (1986). “Schema abstraction” in a multiple-trace memory odel. Psychological Review. 93, 411–428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogaboam, T. W., & Perfetti, C. A. (1978). Reading skill and the role of verbal experience in decoding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 15, 358–376.Google Scholar
Holmes, J., & Ramos, R. G. (1993). False friends and reckless guessers: Observing cognate recognition strategies. In Huckin, T., Haynes, M. & Coady, J.(Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 86–108). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Huckin, T., Haynes, M. & Coady, J. (Eds.). (1993). Second language reading and vocabulary learning. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.Google Scholar
Hudson, T. (1982). The effects of induced schemata on the “short circuit” in L2 reading: Non-decoding factors in L2 reading performance. Language Learning, 32, 1–31.Google Scholar
Hyams, N. (1986). Language acquisition and the theory of parameters. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyams, N. (1987). The theory of parameters and syntactic development. In Roeper, T. & Williams, E. (Eds.), Parameter setting (pp. 1–22). Boston, MA: Reidel.Google Scholar
Hyltenstam, K. (1986). Markedness, language universals, language typology, and second language acquisition. In Pfaff, C. (Ed.), First and second language acquisition processes (pp. 55–78). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Indrasuta, C. (1988). Narrative styles in the writing of Thai and American students. In Purves, A. C. (Ed.), Writing across languages and cultures: Issues in contrastive rhetoric (pp. 206–226). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Irujo, S. (1986). Don't put your leg in your mouth: Transfer in the acquisition of idioms in a second language. TESOL Quarterly. 20, 287–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, M. D., & McClelland, J. L. (1978). Studying individual differences in reading. In Lesgold, A. M., Pellegrino, J. W., Fokkema, S. D. & Glase, R. (Eds.), Cognitive psychology and instruction (pp. 191–202). New York: Plenum.Google Scholar
Jackson, M. D., & McClelland, J. L. (1979). Processing determinants of reading speed. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108, 151–181.Google Scholar
Jakobovits, L. A., & Lambert, W. E. (1961). Semantic satiation among bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 576–582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of fifty-four children from first through fourth grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 437–447.Google Scholar
Juel, C., Griffith, P. L., & Gough, P. B. (1986). Acquisition of literacy: A longitudinal study of children in first and second grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 243–255.Google Scholar
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). A theory of reading: From eye fixations to comprehension. Psychological Review, 87, 329–354.Google Scholar
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1987). The psychology of reading and language comprehension. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar
Kaplan, R. B. (1966). Cultural thought patterns in intercultural education. Language Learning, 16, 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, R. B. (1988). Contrastive rhetoric and second language learning: Notes towards a theory of contrastive rhetoric. In Purves, A. C. (Ed.), Writing across languages and cultures: Issues in contrastive rhetoric (pp. 275–304). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Kellerman, E. (1983). Now' you see it, now you don't. In Gass, S. & Seinker, L. (Eds.), Language transfer in language learning (pp. 112–134). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Kilborn, K., & Ito, T. (1989). Sentence processing strategies in adult bilinguals. In MacWhinney, B. & Bates, E. (Eds.), The crosslinguistic study of sentence processing (pp. 257–295). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kintsch, W., & Greene, E. (1978). The role of culture specific schemata in the comprehension and recall of stories. Discourse Processes, 1, 1–13.Google Scholar
Kitao, S. K. (1989). Reading, schema theory, and second language learners. Tokyo: Eichosha.Google Scholar
Kleiman, G. M. (1975). Speech recoding in reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 14, 323–339.Google Scholar
Koda, K. (1988). Cognitive process in second language reading: Transfer of Ll reading skills and strategies. Second Language Research, 4(2), 133–156.Google Scholar
Koda, K. (1989a). Effects of Ll orthographic representation on L2 phonological coding strategies. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 18(2), 201–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koda, K. (1989b). The effects of transferred vocabulary knowledge on the development of L2 reading proficiency. Foreign Language Annals, 22(6), 529–540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koda, K. (1990a). Factors affecting second language text comprehension. In Zutell, J. & McCormick, S. (Eds.), Literacy theory and research: Analyses from multiple paradigms [39th Yearbook of the National Reading Conference] (pp. 419–427). Chicago, IL: National Reading Conference.Google Scholar
Koda, K. (1990b). The use of LI reading strategies in L2 reading: Effects of LI orthographic structures on L2 phonological recoding strategies. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12(4), 393–410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koda, K. (1993). Transferred L1 strategies and L2 syntactic structure in L2 sentence comprehension. Modern Language Journal, 77, 490–500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S. J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293–323.Google Scholar
Lambert, W. E. (1969). Psychological studies of interdependencies of the bilingual's two languages. In Puhvel, J. (Ed.), Substance and structure of language (pp. 99–126). Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Legarretta, D. (1979). The effects of program models on language acquisition by Spanish speaking children. TESOL Quarterly, 13, 521–534.Google Scholar
Levy, B. A. (1975). Vocalization and suppression effects in sentence memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 14, 304–316.Google Scholar
Liberman, I. Y., Shankweiler, D., Fischer, F. W. & Carter, B. (1974). Explicit syllable and phoneme segmentation in the young child. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 18, 201–212.Google Scholar
Liceras, J. M. (1989). On some properties of the “pro-drop” parameter: Looking for missing subjects in non-native Spanish. In Gass, S. & Schachter, J. (Eds.), Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition (pp. 109–133). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lust, B. (1987). Studies in the acquisition of anaphora. Hingham, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishing.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mandler, J., & Johnson, N. (1977). Remembrance of things parsed: Story structure and recall. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 111–151.Google Scholar
Mann, V. A. (1985). A cross-linguistic perspective on the relation between temporary memory skills and early reading ability. Remedial and Special Education, 6, 37–42.Google Scholar
Mann, V. A. (1986). Phonological awareness: The role of reading experience. Cognition, 24, 65–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mann, V. A. (1991). Are we taking too narrow a view of the conditions for development of phonological awareness? In Brady, S. A. & Shankweiler, D. P. (Eds.), Phonological processes in literacy (pp. 55–64). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Mason, J. (1980). When do children begin to read? An exploration of four year old children's letter and word reading competencies. Reading Research Quarterly, 15, 203–227.Google Scholar
Matsuyama, U. K. (1983). Can story grammar speak Japanese? The Reading Teacher, 36, 666–669.Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L., & Rumelhart, D. E. (1986). Parallel distributed processing: Exploration in the microstructure of cognition (Vol. 2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
McConkie, G. W., & Zola, D. (1981). Language constraints and the functional stimulus in reading. In Lesgold, A. M. & Perfetti, C. A. (Eds.), Interactive processes in reading (pp. 155–175). Hilisdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
McDonald, J. L. (1987). Sentence interpretation in bilingual speakers of English and Dutch. Applied Psycholinguistics, 8, 379–415.Google Scholar
McKeown, M. G., Beck, I. L., Omanson, R. C. & Pople, M. T. (1985). Some effects of the nature and frequency of vocabulary instruction on the knowledge and use of words. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 522–535.Google Scholar
Mezynski, K. (1983). Issues concerning the acquisition of knowledge: Effects of vocabulary training on reading comprehension. Review of Educational Research, 53, 253–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, G. A. (1988). The challenge of universal literacy. Science, 241, 1293–1299.Google Scholar
Mou, L. C., & Anderson, N. S. (1981). Graphemic and phonemic codings of Chinese characters in short-term retention. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 17, 255–258.Google Scholar
Navon, D., & Shimron, J. (1984). Reading Hebrew: How necessary is the graphemic representation of vowels? In Henderson, L. (Ed.), Orthographies and reading: Perspectives from cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and linguistics (pp. 91–102). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Oller, J. W. Jr, (1972). Assessing competence in ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly, 6, 313–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oller, J. W. Jr, & Tullius, J. (1973). Reading skills of non-native speakers of English. IRAL, 11, 69–80.Google Scholar
Olshtain, E. (1983). Sociocultural competence and language transfer: The case of apology. In Gass, S. & Selinker, L. (Eds.), Language transfer in language learning (pp. 232–249). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Olson, R. K., Kliegel, R., Davison, B. J. & Foltz, G. (1984). Individual and developmental differences in reading disability. In Wailer, T. G. (Ed.), Reading research: Advances in theory and practice (Vol. 4, pp. 1–64). New York: Academic.Google Scholar
Opoku, J. Y. (1983). The learning of English as a second language and the development of the emergent bilingual representational systems. International Journal of Psychology, 18, 271–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palinscar, A. S. & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension fostering and monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 75–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, K. E., & Morton, J. (1985). From orthography to phonology: An attempt at an old interpretation. In Patterson, K. E., Marshall, J. C. & Coltheart, M. (Eds.), Surface dyslexia (pp. 331–359). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Pearson, P. D., & Johnson, D. D. (1972). Teaching reading comprehension. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. A. (1985). Reading ability. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. A. (1986). Cognitive and linguistic components of reading ability. In Foorman, B. R. & Siegel, A. W. (Eds.), Acquisition of reading skills: Cultural constraints and cognitive universals (pp. 11–40). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. A. (1991). Representations and awareness in the acquisition of reading competence. In Rieben, L. & Perfetti, C. A. (Eds.), Learning to read: Basic research and its implications (pp. 33–46). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. A., Beck, I., Bell, L. & Hughes, C. (1987). Phonemic knowledge and learning to read are reciprocal: A longitudinal study of first grade children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 283–319.Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. A., Goldman, S. R. & Hogaboam, T. W. (1979). Reading skill and identification of words In discourse context. Memory and Cognition, 7, 273–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perfetti, C. A., & Lesgold, A. M. (1976). Discourse comprehension and sources of individual differences. In Just, M. A. & Carpenter, P. A. (Eds.), Cognitive processes in comprehension (pp. 141–184). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. A., & Lesgold, A. M. (1979). Coding and comprehension in skilled reading and implications for reading instruction. In Resnick, L. B. & Weaver, P. (Eds.), Theory and practice of early reading (pp. 57–84). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Phinney, M., & White, L. (1987). The pro-drop parameter in second language acquisition. In Roeper, T. & Williams, E. (Eds.), Parameter setting (pp. 221–246). Boston, MA: Dordrecht Reidel Publishing.Google Scholar
Pritchard, R. (1990). The effects of cultural schemata on reading processing strategies. Reading Research Quarterly, 25, 273–294.Google Scholar
Raphael, T. E., & Pearson, P. D. (1982). The effects of meta-cognitive strategy awareness training on students' question answering behavior (Technical Report no. 238). Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.Google Scholar
Rayner, K. & Bertera, J. H. (1979). Reading without a fovea. Science, 206, 468–469.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Read, C., Yun-Fei, Z., Hong-Yi, N. & Bao-Qing, D. (1986). The ability to manipulate speech sounds depends on knowing alphabetic writing. Cognition, 24, 31–44.Google Scholar
Ruke-Dravina, V. (1971). Word associations in monolingual and multilingual individuals. Linguistics, 74, 66–84.Google Scholar
Rutherford, W. E. (1983). Language typology and language transfer. In Gass, S. & Selinker, L. (Eds.), Language transfer in language learning (pp. 358–370). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Saito, H., Inoue, M. & Nomura, Y. (1979). Information processing of Kanji (Chinese characters) and Kana (Japanese characters): The close relationship among graphemic, phonemic, and semantic aspects. Psychologia, 22, 195–206.Google Scholar
Saito, Y. (1989, 12). The effects of article deletion in English on the cognitive processes reflected in the eye movements and metacognitive awareness of native readers and Japanese readers of English: An eye-tracking study. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Reading Conference, Austin, TX.Google Scholar
Saragi, T., Nation, I. S. P. & Meister, G. F. (1978). Vocabulary learning and reading. System, 6, 72–78.Google Scholar
Sasaki, Y. (1991). English and Japanese interlanguage comprehension strategies: An analysis based on the competition model. Applied Psycholinguistics, 12, 47–73.Google Scholar
Sasanuma, S. (1984). Can surface dyslexia occur in Japanese? In Henderson, L. (Ed.), Orthographies and reading: Perspectives from cognitive psychology, neuropsychology and linguistics (pp. 43–56). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Scarcella, R. C. (1983). Discourse accent in second language performance. In Gass, S. & Seinker, L. (Eds.), Language transfer in language learning (pp. 306–326). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Schachter, J. (1988). Second language acquisition and its relationship to universal grammar. Applied Linguistics, 9, 219–235.Google Scholar
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: 1. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review, 84, 1–66.Google Scholar
Schwanenflugel, P. J., Blount, B. G. & Lin, P.-J: (1991). Cross-cultural aspects of word meanings. In Schwanenflugel, P. J. (Ed.), The psychology of word meanings (pp. 71–90). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Segalowitz, N. (1986). Skilled reading in the second language. In Vaid, J. (Ed.), Language processing in bilinguais: Psycholinguistic and neuropsychological perspectives (pp. 3–19). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Segalowitz, N., Poulsen, C. & Komoda, M. (1991). Lower level components or reading skill in higher level bilinguals: Implications for reading instruction. AILA Review, 8, 15–30.Google Scholar
Seidenberg, M. S. (1985). The time course of information activation and utilization in visual word recognition. In Besner, D., Waller, T. G. & Mackinnon, G. E. (Eds.), Reading research: Advances in theory and practice (Vol. 5, pp. 199–252). New York: Academic.Google Scholar
Seidenberg, M. S., & McClelland, J. L. (1989). A distributed developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychological Review, 96, 523–568.Google Scholar
Skutnabb-Kangass, T., & Toukomaa, P. (1976). Teaching migrant children's mother tongue and learning the language of the host country in the context of socio-cultural situation of the migrant family. Helsinki: Finnish National Commission for the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.Google Scholar
Slobin, D. I. (1985). Crosslinguistic evidence for the language-making capacity. In Slobin, D. I. (Ed.), The crosslinguistic study of language acquisition (pp. 1157–1249). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Slobin, D. I., & Bever, T. G. (1982). Children's use of canonical sentence schemas: A crosslinguistic study of word order and inflections. Cognition, 12, 229–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snow, C. E., & Hoefnagel-Hohle, M. (1978). The critical period for language acquisition: Evidence from second language learning. Child Development, 49, 1114–1128.Google Scholar
Sokolov, J. L. (1989). The development of role assignment in Hebrew. In MacWhinney, B. & Bates, B. (Eds.), The crosslinguistic study of sentence processing (pp. 118–157). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Solan, L. (1987). Parameter setting and the development of pronouns and reflexives. In Roeper, T. & Williams, E. (Eds.), Parameter setting (pp. 189–219). Boston, MA: D. Reidel Publishing.Google Scholar
Soter, A. O. (1988). The second language learner and cultural transfer in narration. In Purves, A. C. (Ed.), Writing across languages and cultures: Issues in contrastive rhetoric (pp. 177–205). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Stahl, S. A., & Fairbanks, M. M. (1986). The effects of vocabulary instruction: A model-based meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research. 56, 72–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (1982). Word recognition skill and reading ability. In Singer, M. H. (Ed.), Competent reader, disabled reader: Research and application (pp. 81–102). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (1991). Changing models of reading and reading acquisition. In Rieben, L. & Perfetti, C. A. (Eds.), Learning to read: Basic research and its implications (pp. 19–32). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. & West, R. F. (1989). Exposure to print and orthographic processing. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 402–433.Google Scholar
Steffensen, M., Joag-Dev, C. & Anderson, R. C. (1979). A cross-cultural perspective on reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 15, 10–29.Google Scholar
Stein, N., & Glenn, C. (1979). An analysis of story comprehension in elementary school children. In Freedle, R. O. (Ed.), New directions in discourse processing (pp. 53–120). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1987). Most vocabulary is learned from context. In McKeown, M. G. & Curtis, M. E. (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 89–105). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Sulzby, E. (1986). Writing and reading: Signs of oral and written language organization in the young child. In Teale, W. H. & Sulzby, E. (Eds.), Emergent literacy: Writing and reading (pp. 50–89). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Swaffar, J. K. (1988). Readers, texts, and second languages: The interactive processes. Modern Language Journal, 72, 123–149.Google Scholar
Takahashi, T. (1985, 02). Language transfer and the acquisition of patterns of lexicosemantic correspondence. Paper presented at the meeting of the 1985 Second Language Research Forum, Los Angeles, CA.Google Scholar
Tannen, D. (1980). A comparative analysis of oral narrative strategies: Athenian Greek and American English. In Chafe, W. L. (Ed.), The pear stories (pp. 51–87). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Taylor, I., & Taylor, M. M. (1983). The psychology of reading. New York: Academic.Google Scholar
Tierney, R., & Cunningham, J. (1984). Research on teaching reading comprehension. In Pearson, P. D. (Ed.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 609–655). New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Troike, R. C. (1978). Research evidence for the effectiveness of bilingual education. NABE Journal, 3, 13–24.Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T., Feldman, L. B. & Lukatela, G. (1984). The Serbo-Croatian orthography constrains of the reader to a phonologically analytic strategy. In Henderson, L. (Ed.), Orthographies and reading: Perspectives from cognitive psychology, neuropsychology. and linguistics (pp. 81–90). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Tzeng, O. J. L., & Wang, W. S.-Y. (1983). The first two R's: The way different languages reduce speech to script affects how visual information is processed in the brain. American Scientist, 71, 238–243.Google Scholar
Vaid, J. (in press). Effect of reading and writing directions on nonlinguistic perception and performance: Hindi and Urdu data. In Taylor, I. & Olson, D. R. (Eds.), Scripts and literacy: Reading and learning to read the world's scripts. Boston: Kluwer Academic.Google Scholar
White, L. (1987). Markedness and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9, 261–285.Google Scholar
White, L. (1989). Universal grammar and second language acquisition. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitman, R. L. & Jackson, K. L. (1972). The unpredictability of contrastive analysis. Language Learning, 22, 29–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wierzbicka, A. (1986). Human emotions: Universal or culture-specific? American Anthropologist, 88, 584–594.Google Scholar
Yanco, J. J. (1985). Language contact and grammatical interference: Hausa and Zarma in Niamey, Niger. Studies in African Linguistics, 9, 318–322.Google Scholar
Yik, W. F. (1978). The effects of visual and acoustic similarity on short-term memory for Chinese words. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 30, 487–494.Google Scholar
Zehler, A. M. (1982). Reflection of first-language-derived processes in second-language acquisition. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43, 3054A.Google Scholar
Zhang, G. & Simon, H. A. (1985). STM capacity for Chinese words and idioms: Chunking and acoustical loop hypotheses. Memory and Cognition, 13, 193–201.Google Scholar
Zobl, H. (1983). Markedness and the projection problem. Language Learning, 33, 293–313.Google Scholar
Zobl, H. (1984). Cross.language generalizations and the contrastive dimension of the interlanguage hypothesis. In Davies, A., Criper, C., and Howatt, A. P. R. (Eds.), Interlanguage (pp. 79–97). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar